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MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE 
CONQUEST 

THE ISLAND, THE COUNTRT, ^ND THE PEOPLE 



WITH CHAPTERS ON TRAVEL AND TOPO- 
GRAPHY, FOLK-LORE, STRANGE CUSTOMS 
AND SUPERSTITIONS, THE ANIMAL LIFE 
OF THE ISLAND, AND MISSION WORK 
AND PROGRESS AMONG THE INHABITANTS 



BY THE 



REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. 



Missionary of the L.M.S. 



AUTHOR OF " THE GREAT AFRICAN ISLAND," " A MADAGASCAR BIBLIOGRAPHY,' 
."the BIRDS OF MADAGASCAR," ETC. 




AND 
FROM 



NUMEROUS ILLU 
PHOTOGRAPHS 



NEW YORK 
MACMILLAN 
LONDON 
FISHER UNWIN 
1896 




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By transfei 

laC 13 1915 



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PREFACE 




This is my third book on Madagascar, and probably some of 
my readers may be disposed to ask what more I can have to 
say about the country or the people. The following pages form 
a reply to such a question, and it may be further said in explana- 
tion that it is now twenty-six years since the publication of my 
first book I and sixteen since the second ^ was issued ; and that 
since the latter of those dates much new information has been 
accumulating with regard to the physical geography, geology, 
fauna and flora, and ethnology of Madagascar. 

During the thirty-two years that I have been connected with 
this great island, I have been continually collecting information 
and writing about it, chiefly in the Antananarivo Annual^ a pub- 
lication issued every year in the capital, as well as in the 
Proceedings of various English societies ; but as these papers 
are only known to a limited class of readers, I have thought 
that at this time, when public attention is being again called to 
Madagascar, the information given in the following pages would 
be interesting to the public generally. They will, I trust, give 
to many a clearer notion of what kind of place this country is, 
and what sort of people they are who inhabit it. 

I here express my obligations to my friend, M. Alfred 
Grandidier, for permission to translate and reproduce much 
that is valuable from his numerous publications referring to 
Madagascar in the French language. 

^ Madagascar and its People (R.T.S., 1870). 
» The Great African Island (Trubner, li 



VI PREFACE. 

I have also to thank my friends, Mr. J. Parrett and Dr. S. B. 
Fenn, for being able to reproduce several photographs which 
adorn these pages. 

And, lastly, my grateful thanks are due to the Rev. W. 
E. Cousins for his great kindness in correcting the proofs, so 
far at least as Malagasy words are employed. It has, of course, 
been a disadvantage that I could not personally revise the 
proofs when the work was passing through the press, and I 
must plead that in excuse for any faults that may be dis- 
covered by the critical reader. The publisher has done his 
best to minimise the difficulties necessarily involved in writing 
a book in Madagascar and publishing it in England. 

J. s. 

London Missionary Society's College, 
Antananarivo, Madagascar. 

November 20, 1895. 

Note. — All through this book Malagasy words are accented 
on the syllables which should be emphasised. And if it is 
borne in mind that the vowels have as nearly as possible the 
same sound as in Italian, and that the consonants do not differ 
much in sound from those in English, except that ^ is always 
hard, s always a sibilant and not like 2, and j is like dj, there 
need be no difficulty in pronouncing Malagasy words with a fair 
amount of accuracy. 




CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 



Scenery around the capital — Its picturesque situation — Rugged streets 
and paths — Houses and other buildings — Recent introduction of 



i 






PAGE 



FROM COAST TO CAPITAL : NOTES OF A JOURNEY FROM MA- 

HANORO TO ANTANANARIVO I 

Various routes to interior — Mahanoro — Madagascar travelling — 
Filanjana or palanquin — Native bearers — Native villages — Betsimisaraka 
Cemetery— Canoe travelling— Canoe songs — Tropical vegetation — 
The Travellers '-tree — Scenery — Native houses and arrangements — A 
tiring Sunday's journey — Butterflies and birds — A village congrega- 
tion — Forest scenery and luxuriance — Romantic glens and glades — 
Uplands and extensive prospects — In Imerina at last — Over old 
haunts in forest — Mantasoa and its workshops — Native bridges — 
War preparations — ^A hearty welcome to the capital. 

CHAPTER n. 

IMERINA THE CENTRAL PROVINCE : ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES AND 

VILLAGE LIFE I5 

Recent advances in knowledge of Madagascar -geography — Recen t 
journeys — Tamatave — Mode of travelling — Coast lagoons — Scenery — 
Forest and climbing plants — Ankay Plain — Upper forest belt — Ime- 
rina or Ankova "Home of the Hova" — Mountains and prominent 
peaks — Bare uplands — Geology and colour of soil — Extinct volcanoes 
— ^Watershed of island — Lakes — Population — Sacred towns — Village 
fortifications — Maps of Imerina — An Imerina village — Ancient villages 
, on high hills — Hova houses and arrangements — Ox-fattening pits — 
,1 Native tombs — Trees — Hova children and games — Village chapels 
j and schools. 

! CHAPTER HI. 

a: s^tananarivo, the capital : its public buildings, memorial 
and other churches, and religious and charitable 
institutions . . 34 



Vlll 



CONTENTS. 



bricks — Royal palaces — Faravohitra — Ancient gateway — Sacred stones 
— Weekly market of Zoma — Amusements — L.M.S, churches and 
rehgious institutions — Ambatonakanga Church — Other memorial 
churches — " Mother churches " and districts — Chapel Royal — Sunday 
observance — Colleges and school-buildings — Dispensaries and hos- 
pitals — Other missions — Extent of Christian work carried on — Civi- 
lising work of L.M.S. mission — Population — Plans of the capital — 
Antananarivo the heart of Madagascar. 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR : NOTES ON THE 
CLIMATES, AGRICULTURE, SOCIAL CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE, 
AND VARIED ASPECTS OF THE MONTUS . . . -52 

The seasons in Madagascar — Their significant names — Prospect from 
summit of Antananarivo — The great rice-plain — Springtime : Septem- 
ber to October — Rice-planting and rice-fields — First crop — Trees and 
foliage — " Burning the Downs " — Birds — Summer : November to Feb- 
ruary — Thunderstorms and tropical rains — Effects on roads — Rain- 
fall — Hail — Magnificent lightning effects — Malagasy New Year — 
Native calendar — Royal bathing — Conspicuous flowers — Aloes and 
agaves — Christmas Day observances — Uniformity in length of days — 
Native words and phrases for divisions of time — and for natural 
phenomena — Effects of heavy rains — Wild flowers of Imerina — 
Autumn : March and April — Rice harvest — Harvest thanksgiving ser- 
vices — Mist effects on winter mornings — Spiders' w^ebs — Winter : May 
to August — Winter the dry season — ^Ancient villages and fosses — 
Hova tombs — Great markets — Aspects of nightly sky — Epidemics in 
cold season — Vegetation. 

CHAPTER V. 

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA : ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES AND 
LEGENDARY HISTORY ; AND THE VOLCANIC REGIONS OF THE 
INTERIOR 82 

Ancient volcanoes of Central Madagascar — Hot springs — Fossil re- 
mains in limestone deposits — Crater lake of Andraikiba — Tritriva 
Lake — Colour of water — Remarkable appearance of lake — View from 
crater walls — Mr. Baron on volcanic phenomena — Ankaratra Moun- 
tain — Ancient crater — Lava streams — Volcanic rocks — Recent character 
of volcanic action. 

CHAPTER VI. 

AMBATOVORY : ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS IN MADAGASCAR ; 
WITH NATURAL HISTORY AND OTHER NOTES .... 

The rest-house— Amboniloha Hill— A deserted village— Ambatovory 
rock — Woodland paths— Birds — Lizards and chameleons — Grass- 



91 



i 'f 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

hoppers — Protective colouring — Warring colours — Beetles — Ants and 
ant-nests — Ball insects — Spiders — Butterflies — King butterfly — Solitary 
wasps — Wasp nests — Angavokely Mountain — Extensive prospect. 

CHAPTER VII. 

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES I09 

Mixed nomenclature of coast and interior places — Early European 
influence — Arab and Portuguese names — Influence of fady or taboo 
— Name of Madagascar — Mountain names — The name-prefixes An- 
and Am — Height and prominence — Mystery and dread — Size — Words 
meaning rock and stone — Animals and birds — Personal names for 
hills — Grandeur of mountain scenery — River names — Descriptive 
epithets — Lake names — Town and village names — Dual names — 
Names of capital and its divisions — Town names from natural 
features — forests — river banks — from animals — Personal — Tribal — 
Province names — Appendix on Betsileo place-names. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH CHIEFTAINSHIP 
AND ROYALTY AMONG THE MALAGASY ; AND NOTES OF THE 
SIGN AND GESTURE LANGUAGE I49 

The Betsileo — Special words, or " chief's language " — in Malayo- 
Polynesian languages — for Malagasy sovereigns — Illness and death 
— Burial — Mourning — Diseases — Royal servants — Royal houses — 
Chief's words among Betsileo — for family of chiefs — for elderly 
chiefs — for chiefs old and young — Extreme honour paid to chiefs 
— Fady or taboo in words — Tabooed animals — Royal names — Sacred 
character of — Veneration for royalty — Sakalava chiefs — Posthumous 
names — Relics of the sign and gesture language — Salutations — Sym- 
bolic acts — Royalty — "Licking the sole" — Kaharys — The taboo. 

CHAPTER IX. 

ALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS . . .174 






Animals — The ox — Birds — Insects — Fabulous animals — Fanany, or 
seven-headed serpent — Footprints of giants — Trees and plants — 
Ordeals — Folk-lore of life — Lucky and unlucky actions — Sickness and 
death — Witchcraft and charms — Food and fady of the Sihanaka — 
Snakes and lemurs — Tabooed days — in clans — and villages — Good 
omens — for food — and wealth — Evil omens — as to famine — Trade 
— Poverty, and death — Weather prognostics — Various portents — 
dreams. 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER X. 

PAGE 

MALAGASY ORATORY, ORNAMENTS OF SPEECH, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, 

AND CONUNDRUMS I9I 

Introductory historical sketch — Folk-lore — Folk-tales — Proverbs — 
Kahary — Oratory and figures of speech — The desolate one — Mutual 
love — The bird — A divorced wife — Transitoriness of life — Bereave- 
ment — Death — Imagination — Boasting — The crocodile — A place for 
everything — Filial love — Friendship — Thanksgiving — Evil speech — 
Symbolic acts — The two kings — The heir to the throne — Riddles 
and conundrums. 

CHAPTER XI. 

MALAGASY SONGS, POETRY, CHILDREN'S GAMES, AND MYTHICAL 

CREATURES 213 

Songs to the sovereign — Dirges — Sihanaka laments — Ballad of 
Benandro — Friendship — Children's games — Rasarlndra — Sohvitditra 
— Sakada — "Leper" game — "Star killing" — New Year's games — 
Counting games — Marvellous creatures — Songomby — Fanany, or seven- 
headed serpent — Tokandia, or " Singlefoot " — Kindly — Dona, or Pily 
(serpent) — Lalomena (Hippopotamus ?) — Angalapona — Siona. . 



CHAPTER Xn. 

MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES 2yj 

Bonia — Crocodile and dog — Three sisters and Itrimobe — The members 
of the body— The little bird— Rap^to— The lost Son of God— The 
five fingers — The earth and the skies — The birds choosing a king — 
The lizards — Hawk and hen — Vazimba — Chameleon and lizard — 
Serpent and frog — The rice and sugar-cane — Two rogues — Wild 
hog and rat, 

CHAPTER XHI. ' 

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY, TOGETHER WITH NATIVE 

IDEAS AS TO FATE AND DESTINY 262 



The Sikldy — Subject investigated by Mr. Dahle— Little organised 
idolatry among the Malagasy — Diviners — Divination and fate — Invoca- 
tion of the Sikldy — Sixteen figures of the Sik}dy — Sixteen columns of 
the Sikldy — Erecting the Sikldy — Working of the Sikldy — Identical 
figures — Unique figures — Combined figures — Miscellaneous Sikldy — 
Gun charms — Trade charms — Medicinal charms — Fortunate places 
and days — Ati-pako — Fate as told by zodiac and moon — Lucky and 
unlucky days — House divinations — Fate as told by the planets — Days 
of the week — Decreasing influence of the Sikldy. 



1 



CONTENTS. xi 



CHAPTER XIV. 

PAGE 

FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY .... 286 

Two great divisions of the people — Idea of impurity in connection 
with death — A revolting custom — Funeral feasts — Tankarana — Their 
carved coffins — Analogies to those of Philippine Islanders — Betsimi- 
saraka — Ranomena — Tambahoaka, Taimoro and Tanosy — The Fanano 
— Tandroy and Mahafaly — Sakalava — The Zomba, or sacred house — 
The Vazimba — Behisotra and Tandrona — Sihanaka — Bezanozano — 
Tanala — Vorimo — Ikongo — Hova — Betsileo — Bara — Funeral of Radama 
I. — Enormous wealth put in tomb — Silver coffin. 

CHAPTER XV. 

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD, ESPECIALLY ON THE BURIAL 
MEMORIALS OF THE BETSILEO MALAGASY ; TOGETHER WITH 
NOTES ON THE HANDICRAFTS OF THE MALAGASY AND NATIVE 
PRODUCTS 313 

Absence of artistic feeling among the Hova — The Betsileo — Carved 
memorial posts — Various forms of tombs — Character of the carving 
Vato lahy, or memorial stones — Graves of great depths — Carving in 
houses — Collection of rubbings — General style of ornamentation — 
Symbolic meaning ? — Malagasy handicrafts — Spinning and weaving 
— Different kinds of cloth — Straw-work — Bark-cloth — Metal-work — 
Pottery — Building — Canoes and boats — Cultivated products of country 
— Exports. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF LIFE IN MADAGASCAR . . 335 

The comic element everywhere present — First experiences — Native 
dress — Borrowed garments — Christmas Day exhibition — Interruptions 
to Divine service — A nation of bald-heads — Native houses and their 
inmates — Receptions by Hova governors — Native feasts — Queer 
articles of food — First attempts at speaking Malagasy — "Try a rela- 
tive " — Transformations of English names — Biblical names — Odd 
names — English mistakes — The "southern" side of his moustache — 
Funeral presents — Church decoration — Offertory boxes — Deacon's 
duties. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

T^|E FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR IN CONNECTION WITH 
M j THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE ISLAND ; WITH NOTICES 
m I OF THE EXTINCT FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE OF THE COUNTRY . 353 

General characteristics of mammalian fauna — Remarkable difference 
to that of Africa — An ancient island — Wallace's " Island Life " — Ori- 
ental and Australian affinities — Vegetable productions — Botanising in 



xii 



CONTENTS. 



Madagascar — Three-fourths of the flora endemic in the island — Three 
different regions described by Mr. Baron — Floral beauty — Orchids — 
The eastern region — The central region — The western region — 
Extinct forms of animal life — Grandidier's discoveries — Geology — 
Huge lemuroid — Link between apes and lemurs — Small hippopota- 
mus — The iEpyornis — Crocodiles — Enormous terrestrial lizard — 
Primaeval Madagascar. 



►2 



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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



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9- 
10. 
[I. 
12. 

H' 
15. 
[6. 



CENTRAL PORTION OF ANTANANARIVO ... . FwilUspiece 
HOW WE TRAVEL IN MADAGASCAR . . To face p. I 

CANOES ON RIVER NEAR COAST ... „ 4 

VILLAGE ON COAST „ 15 

STONE GATEWAY OF ANCIENT TOWNS IN IMERINA „ 26 

NORTHERN PART OF ANTANANARIVO . . ,,34 

VIEW FROM ANDOHALO .... „ 46 

ANTANANARIVO FROM THE WEST. SOUTH END OF CITY 

To face p. 52 

A SAKALAVA WARRIOR „ 1 49 

BfeTSIMISARAKA WOMEN .... ,,191 

TAISAKA CHIEFS „ 286 

BETSIMISARAKA CEMETERY . . . . „ 29O 

MALAGASY LOOM, AND WEAVING A LAMBA . „ 313 

A HOVA OFFICER, MALAGASY ARMY . . ,, 336 

travellers' TREES, LOWER FOREST . . ,, 353 

RIVER SCENE IN FOREST .... „ 368 



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CHAPTER I. 

I COAST TO CAPITAL; NOTES OF A JOURNEY FROM 
MAHANORO TO ANTANANARIVO. 

routes to interior — Mahanoro — Madagascar travelling — Filanjana or 
alanquin — Native bearers — Native villages — Betsimisaraka cemetery — 
finoe travelling — Canoe songs — Tropical vegetation — The Traveller's-tree — 
Icenery — Native houses and arrangements — A tiring Sunday's journey — 
butterflies and birds — A village'congregation — Forest scenery and luxuriance — 
J'^mantic glens and glades — Upland and extensive prospects — In Imerina at 
it — Over old haunts in forest — Mantasoa and its workshops — Native 
idges — ^War preparations — A hearty welcome to the capital. 

T the time of the Franco-Malagasy war of 1 883-1 885, the 
route to the capital from the East Coast, by way of 
natave, was closed for many months, and the roads from 
hanoro and Mananjara became the usual route of foreigners 
ling into the interior. It was my good fortune to be able 
;ome up to Imerina by the Mahanoro route in the month 
vember, 1883 ; and it may perhaps not be uninteresting 
ive here the substance of my daily notes describing our 
ey. 

e found ourselves, early in the afternoon of Thursday, 
fmber 8th, fairly on our way towards the interior. Our 
ages were the ordinary native filanjana, or light, open 
iquin ; our motive power, strong Malagasy bearers, eight 
ach person, in two sets of four each ; the roads we traversed, 
paths made simply by the bare feet of the natives, generation 
generation, mounting hills, floundering through bogs, and 
ing through streams, just as they happened to come ; our 

2 I 



t* 






2 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

s ^ ^r 
inns, the huts of rush or wood, innocent alike of doc 

windows, table or chairs or beds, and boasting only a cleai , 

,. . . , . atiid 

spread for us over many dirty ones ; our cuisine, the rice r l 

fowls always to be got on the way, supplemented by a J 

stores taken in tin boxes ; and our accommodation foil ^, 

night, light, portable " stretchers " carried by our men, wit! . 

bedding secured in similar watertight contrivances. Our {■ ,r 

consisted of my wife and little girl, two years old, and m; 

together with our friend Mr. Houlder. 

I should perhaps add a few words here in answer 1 

. . . n in 

possible question as to what kind of vehicle we travel i' . „ 

Madagascar. This contrivance, generally called " palanq \ , 

by Europeans, but filanjctna by the Malagasy (from the ^ r 

milanja, to carry on the shoulder), consists of a coupk 

light, strong poles, about lo feet long, kept together by , j 

stout iron rods, and with a seat framed of iron and covd , . _. 

with leather, hung from the poles. Ladies' filanjdna are a j ., j 

of oblong basket, made of fine strips of sheepskin pic .^^ . 

together, and carried on two poles made of the strong but 1 ^ 

midrib of the leaves of the rofia palm. When travelling 1( , A??, 

distances, a hood of rofia cloth is fixed over ladies' filanjci ^■» 

as a protection from the sun and rain. The "bearers" a; 

. L-ure 

as a rule, strong, active, and cheerful fellows, generally ve^ 

kind and helpful, and most careful of the safety of the ^ 

whom they carry, hour after hour and day after day, on t 

shoulders. 

The first stage of our journey was northwards, along a sa , 

breadth of land, between the belt of trees which line the c( ^ 

a 1 
and the lagoons. Beyond these trees, to the left, extends si ,* 

wooded country, with a range of low hills west of it, gradu .' f' 

approaching the lagoons, and then showing line after lin^ , 

higher hills towards the interior. The Traveller's-tree is v 

plentiful, as well as several species of Pandanus, and la '' 

Arums in the shallow waters. After four hours and a quart ^^ 

steady march we came to a village called Beparasy, \\ ^^^ 



aore 
to 
east 
iinto 



'■* 



FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. 3 

nearly one hundred houses. This afternoon we passed a small 
Betsimisaraka cemetery, where we saw at a little distance 
the curious fashion they have of wrapping up the corpses in 
mats and enclosing them in planks, and then fixing them on a 
stage, 4 or 5 feet above the ground.^ Near the village were 
i tombs of a different description, resembling a house-roof, en- 
closed by a double line of pointed stakes. In the centre of the 
village is fixed a post, whose top is sharpened into two long 
" horns," and on this are the mouldering remains of an ox-skull. 
This, they told us, was a circumcision memorial. 

Friday, Nov. gth. — We were up soon after four o'clock, got 
our things packed, had a good breakfast, took our quinine, 
and were all clear away before six o'clock. Going down to 
the foot of the rising ground on which the village is built, we 
came to a narrow creek, where a canoe was awaiting us. Going 
along this creek we came to a broader reach of the lagoon, and 
were soon admiring the great Vlha arums, 9 or lo feet high, 
just flowering, and one of the various species of Pandanus, which 
has an almost grotesque but withal a very graceful and slender 

(outline. After passing through another short, narrow channel, 
we came out on a broad, widespreading lake. 
Few experiences are more pleasant in Madagascar travelling 
to glide rapidly down or across one of the large rivers in 
irly morning — the time when the eastern rivers, at least, are 
moothest — and in a large canoe, with plenty of paddlers, 
:en to the rowers' songs, which are often both amusing and 
:al. They will frequently improvise a song, one of them 
ng up a recitative, in which circumstances which have 
red on the journey are introduced, while the others chime 
it^ a chorus at regular intervals, a favourite one being 
isy vd ? " — " Oh ! is there some ? " This question refers 

IS good things they hope to get at the end of the day's 

such as plenty of rice, beef, sweet-potatoes, &c., these 



ismri 

I witl 

mec 



ibsequent chapter on " Funeral Ceremonies," for fuller information on 
burial customs. 



V 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 



articles of food being mentioned one after another by the leader 
of the song. A little delicate flattery of their employer, the 
Englishman they are rowing, is often introduced, and praises of 
his hoped-for generosity in providing these luxuries for them ; 
something in this style : — 



E, misy va ? 

E, misy re ! 
E, ny vorontsiloza, zalahy e ? 

E, misy re ! 
E, ny gisy matavy, zalahy e ? 

E, misy re ! 
E, ny akoho manatody, zalahy e ? 

E, misy re ! 
E, ny Vazaha be vola, zalahy e ? 

E, misy re ! 



Oh, is there any ? 



O yes, there's some ! 
Oh the turkeys, lads, O ? 

O yes, there's some ! 
Oh the plump-looking geese, lads, O ? 

O yes, there's some ! 
Oh the egg-laying fowls, lads,"0 ? 

O yes, there's some ! 
Oh the very rich foreigner, lads, O ? 

O yes, here he is ! 



and so on, ad libitum. 

In another song heard by the writer on the Matitanana river 
(south-east coast), the chorus was Mandany vatsy, Toamasina 
malctza e ! " Le., " Consumes provisions for the way, famous 
Tamatave O ! " while the recitative brought in all the different 
villages on the journey from Tamatave to the capital, ending 
with Andohalo (the central space), and Avara-drova (the northern 
and chief entrance to the palace). 

The lagoons of the eastern coast form a very marked feP:ure 

in the physical geography of the island. They extend for J^iore 

than three hundred miles, that is, from north of TamataV i to 

south of Mananjara, forming an almost continuous line ; at east 

the cutting of about thirty miles of canal would make therr into 

an uninterrupted waterway between all the chief ports oi" the 

eastern coast. During the reign of the enlightened Radama I. 

(i8 1 9-1 828) the work of uniting these lagoons was com'-f enced, 

but was soon stopped by his death. It may be hopej^ ' *at it 

will not be long before this work will be again taken ) r-and. 

' V L, 
It would, doubtless, be of great value to the comme. f 

r ^ ila I * 

mter-(;ommunication of the eastern coast. 

These coast las^oons sometimes take the form of' 



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FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. 5 

running for several miles in almost a straight line, while in 
many places they broaden out into extensive lakes. 

After leaving the canoes we began to turn westward and 
then north-westward, over a wooded country. The most notice- 
able feature in the vegetation is the Traveller's-tree, which is 
very abundant, almost covering the hills wherever the virgin 
forest has been cut down. The Pandanus and the rofia palm 
are also very plentiful ; and the dense secondary woods, through 
which the narrow path winds, were most beautiful, many trees 
and plants being just at the time of flowering. 

On all parts of the East Coast, from the sea level up to i,ooo 
feet above the sea, the most prominent and interesting tree 
is this well-known Traveller's-tree. This tree, which seems 
to form a link between the bananas and the palms, gives a 
peculiar character to the vegetation, and at once marks the 
landscape as a Madagascar one. From a palm-like trunk, 
usually from lo to 30 feet high, but in certain situations reaching 
from two to three times the latter height, springs a gigantic 
fan of long and broad leaves like those of a banana, often 
forming an almost complete circle of 20 to 30 feet in diameter. 
These have a peculiar effect, especially when a line of them 
crown the sides and summit of a hill. Mr. Ellis has compared 
them to the feathered crest in the head-dress of an Indian 
sachem, and there is much truth in the comparison. 

Although it has been sometimes denied, it is perfectly true 
that a good supply of pure and cool water can always be 
obtained by piercing the base of the leaf stalks ; and I have 
myself been thankful, when travelling along the coast, and could 
get no water except from the stagnant and brackish contents of 
the lagoons, to tap these living fountains and take a hearty 
drauight from the Traveller's-tree. 

The Longbzy (cardamom) is also very abundant, and the 
sm.Tll curving Bamboo. We soon began to ascend hill after 

land presently caught sight of the sea, many miles behind 

) The hills and forest appear to come here nearer to the 




6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

coast than on the Tamatave route. On reaching the end of a 
ridge, we caught sight of a river roaring over rapids below us, 
a mile or two away, and flowing to the sea (at Marosiky). We 
had a long ride of (including stoppages for canoes) five hours 
and twenty minutes. Many of the ascents and descents were 
very steep, and the paths narrow. There appears to be a con- 
siderable number of small villages on the road. Our after- 
noon's ride was much shorter than that of the morning, two 
hours and a half only, but generally following the valley of the 
pretty river Manampotsy, which flows westwards and southward, 
frequently foaming over rocky bars and rapids. We passed 
large masses of pinkish quartz, and in some places the rocks 
in the bed of the river were tilted, with their strata almost 
perpendicular. All over this country the air was thick with the 
smoke from the burning of the trees and grass on the hillsides, 
in order to plant rice in the ashes — a most wasteful and bar- 
barous custom, which causes a great destruction not only of the 
secondary woods and jungle, but also of the virgin forest. 
Before four o'clock we stopped at a village called Ambodimanga, 
built on rising ground some 200 feet or so above the river, which 
here flows nearly north and south. On both sides of the river- 
valley rise high hills to a height of several hundred feet, and 
covered with patches of old forest on their summits. 

Saturday^ Nov. loth. — We must now have ascended to 
between 1,000 and 2,000 feet above the sea, and a thick 
rug became a very comfortable covering towards the small 
hours of the morning. We were off before six o'clock, and 
immediately commenced a steep ascent of several hundred 
feet. Our road lay along a ridge, and then west and north- 
west, up and down, over some very rough paths. The river 
Manampotsy is still our companion to the right, flowing af" ] 
due east. Here there is no continuous forest, but only pat/ 

of it left on the summits and sides of the hills. We mal *^, 

er s 
short morning's ride of two and a half hours, and stopper ^^ 

a village called Antanambe. In the house where we rested 



FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. 7 

a number of pretty little mats called lakatra^ about i8 
inches square, with a variety of patterns in brown straw. These, 
they told us, were for ornamenting the house, and were here 
fixed on the walls. We tried to buy some, but they had none 
new enough to sell us. In these Betsimisaraka houses the 
arrangement of the single room is thus : door at the left-hand 
side ; another facing it on the opposite side ; on the right-hand 
nearest corner, as you enter, is the hearth, with four massive 
posts supporting two stages, and called salazana. Near the 
door is fixed a large cylindrical box, hollowed out of a tree 
trunk, 3 feet high and i8 inches wide, and used for storing 
rice. As in Hova houses, the soot is allowed to accumulate, 
and to hang in long strings from the roof. 

Our second stage, of between six and seven hours, was very 
hot and wearisome. We crossed a lovely glen, with rocks and 
stream overhung by forest, and here the men enjoyed a bathe. 
During the afternoon we crossed the higher waters of the 
Manampotsy, here flowing from the south. We stayed for 
nearly an hour, about half way, under some trees, to rest a little 
from the great heat. The hills around are very high, and are 
covered with virgin forest. The house in which we stayed for 
the night was the smallest in which we have yet put up ; it was 
only about 12 feet by 10 feet, and had about as much room as 
we should have had in the cabin of a ship. This was the 
coldest night we have yet had. We fairly entered the great 
forest before getting to our halting-place. 

Sunday, Nov. nth. — This day's march, of more than six 
hours, was through a part of the old forest ; some of the trees 
were of great height, but none were of considerable bulk. I 
was struck by the variety of lichens and mosses on the tree 
drauks ; on some single trees there must have been dozens of 

irent species, but not being on foot one could collect only by 
ing a snatch at some of the aerial lichens, which were 
;tmn reach of one's hand. I noticed that the forest was by no 
e hs so silent as I had remarked at other times. Former 






8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

journeys were made, however, in the colder winter months of 
the year, but now that the warm weather is approaching, some 
bird or other was almost always heard. Every quarter of a 
mile or so we heard the noisy call of the Kankafotra Cuckoo, 
koW'kow, kow-koWj repeated ; then the flute-call of another 
cuckoo, the Tolbho^ whose notes were heard all the way from 
Mahanoro ; also the chirp and whistle of the Railovy or King- 
crow, as well as the incessant twitter of many smaller birds. 
Then came, now and then, the melancholy cries of the Lemurs 
high up among the trees. Numerous butterflies crossed our 
path, seven or eight different species at least: the rather common 
green one with yellow spots, the blackish brown with two large 
blue spots, the widely distributed brown one with black-edged 
wings, the pure white one, the white with orange edges, white 
with black edges, white with crimped edges, the small yellow 
species, the small buff, the minute brown and blue, and many 
others. We have now lost the Traveller's-tree ; the rofia palm, 
however, is seen in the damp hollows, but not so large as lower 
down the country. The Bamboo, a slender graceful species, 
growing singly and bending over in an arched form, is plentiful 
in some of the valleys and on the hillsides. Here and there, 
high up on the hills, I caught the blaze of colours of one of 
those called Flamboyant. But the most plentiful tree with 
bright-coloured flowers is one bearing pinkish-red flowers, on 
some of which there is a mass of yellow stamens. 

At last we came up to a village, called Antenimbe, where 
we got a much larger house than on the previous evening. 
We were glad to throw ourselves on the mats and lie down 
until dinner was ready. The heat was very great and stifling 
in the houses with their single door. But by five o'clock I was 
ready to take part in our little service, which we held out of 
doors. Most of our bearers came, and some of the peopk^^^g 
the village. We sang three or four hymns ; one of our bea'^ ' 
prayed, and H. and I both read a portion of Scripture and \ 
a short exposition. 1^^ 



•e ' 



' 



FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. 9 

Monday y Nov. 1 2th. — We have to-day been travelling more 
than nine hours. Our road lay first to the south, so as to get 
round a towering height, and then turned westward through 
deep valleys, with a sparkling river, which we repeatedly crossed. 
Again we noticed the destruction of the forest and the wanton 
waste of the trees. We stopped at a small village of some 
sixteen houses, after nearly three and a half hours' ride. 

We now ascended to the pass between the ridge of mountains 
which bounds the eastern side of the Mang6ro valley, and must 
have risen 500 or 700 feet before gaining the summit. On our 
right a river, broken by many rocks and falls, poured eastward. 
In the small space allowed by the river-bed the trees rose to an 
unusual height, and on either side of the gorge forest-clothed 
mountains towered to elevations of at least 2,000 feet above 
us. The path was difficult, but the deep cuttings we continually 
passed through were fringed by ferns and other plants. I 
noticed, however, that all along the route we had come there 
were no orchids, at least none conspicuous by flowering, and 
hardly any palms. At one point I noticed a nest suspended 
from a twig over the water, in shape exactly resembling that 
of an inverted chemical retort, and made by the Fbdifetsy^ 
or " Crafty Weaver " {Ploceus pensilis). 

At last we reached the highest point of the pass, and began 
to descend by a path more steep and rugged than the one 
we had mounted by. Gradually we got clear of the forest, 
jand the view would have been magnificent had it not been 
dimmed by the clouds of smoke rising in every direction from 

I the burning forest. At one place we were almost suffocated 
by the blazing wood and jungle close to our path, and narrowly 
escaped being stopped by the flames. Presently we caught 
a g^limpse of the Mangoro far below, and we could hardly have 
dififeided less than 1,000 feet from the summit of the pass to 
mak^er level. Beyond the river the western range of moun- 
withrose in great grandeur, line after line — all forest-clad ; 
^e form the eastern edge of the upper plateau ; and I do 

^1 



lO MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

not remember to have seen anywhere else in Madagascar such 
a munificent mountain scene. At a little before two o'clock 
we got down to the Mangoro, here a smooth rapid stream from 
200 to 300 feet wide, and in a few minutes were ferried across 
in a large new Idkana (canoe). It was easy to see that at this 
point the physical geography of the country is very different 
from that of the same river valley on the Tamatave route. 
There — between Moramanga and the Ifody hills — it widens out 
into an extensive plain, but here the river valley is very narrow, 
the mountains descending by steep slopes, and rising on the 
western side, as already remarked, into ridges of great height. 

Our road lay along the valley, generally following the course 
of the stream. It can be traversed by canoes for no great 
distance, since it is broken up repeatedly by rocky bars and by 
falls over ledges of rock ; at one point it is contracted to a 
narrow gorge, through which the water rushes with a tremendous 
swirl and roar. 

We were glad, after our long ride of nine hours, to see 
a small village, Andranotsara, before us, on a rising ground 
80 or 90 feet above the river. We found two sufficiently decent 
houses in the fifteen or sixteen composing the village. Here- 
abouts the wet culture of rice begins ^ ; and here the people 
brought us small presents. 

Tuesday^ Nov. 1 2th. — We left Andranotsara at five o'clock, 
and for two hours went northward, following the course of 
the Mangoro, which is beset with rocks, and forms rapids 
and falls in several places. A bright, clear river, the Mana- 
kona, falls into the larger one close to a village of the same 
name. After this we left the river, and began a long, stiff 
ascent up the hills on the west side of the river valley. Our 
road then turned west and north-west over rugged grd^ o^ 
hill and valley, through patches of old forest, with dishes 
paths. Then the road cut diagonally across the spurr^ -3. 



* For fuller information as to rice culture in Madagascar, see sufc> , 
chapter on " The Changing Year." m\.\. 



f 



^ 



FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. II 

rock-capped and forest-covered hill, called Marivolanitra. 

Rounding one shoulder of this, we now saw part of the Ankay 

plain, the Moramanga hills on the east, the great mass of Ifody 

standing out like an outwork of the walls of the central plateau, 

and then Angavo and the line of hills which form the edge 

of the interior highland. The Ankay plain appears to end here, 

southwards, rather abruptly. The Angavo chain of heights 

seems to curve round in crescent-shaped masses, and then joins 

the mountains which bound the Mangoro valley. Near Fari- 

himazava we found a flourishing rice valley cultivated after the 

Hova fashion, and the appearance of the country and the 

methods of cultivation told us that we were getting near Imerina. 

After four and a half hours' ride we came to the village 

of Beparasy, quite a Hova-looking place, with the houses made 

of thick planking, " horns " to the gables, and a native chapel. 

Here the people brought us rice and eggs for our entertainment. 

Leaving again after noon, we had a weary journey over 

another great mass of hill, and then over the plain, still going 

north-west, and approaching the blue, forest-covered slopes of 

the wall of the plateau. We were glad at a little before five 

o'clock to stop at a poor little hamlet, called Ambodimivongo, 

where, however, we both got tolerably good houses ; but the 

bearers of our luggage only just managed to get in in time 

to escape a heavy thunderstorm. Our house began to leak 

a little ; but happily it rained heavily only for a short time. 

This is the beginning of the rainy season in the interior, but 

thus far we have had no rain on our journey, and so our 

things have kept dry. We have also had no annoyance from 

rats, and hardly any from mosquitoes. The people of the 

houses here have been more intelligent and conversable than 

a S"lim,st of the places where we have stayed. They brought 

diffe-j raspberries and blackberries as soon as they found we 

mak^iiated these fruits. The former we have had as dessert 

withi all the way up from the coast, and a very acceptable 

'^ ^h to our fare they have proved. 



^ 



12 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Wednesday^ Nov. I'^th, — There was a thick drizzly rain as 
we commenced our ascent up the hills into the regions of the 
interior. In a little time we got up to Andrangol6aka. A 
great many trees and plants were in flower, and the deep 
cuttings through which the path winds were lined with ferns 
and other plants. For nearly two and a half hours we made 
an uninterrupted ascent, very difficult in many places, and the 
rain was still falling. 

Then we came to a part of the forest where we recog- 
nised some of our favourite haunts during our holidays at 
Andrangoloaka, but when we came up to the house we 
were grieved to see how it was falling into ruin through 
neglect. The old house-keeper and his wife immediately 
recognised us, and were the first to welcome us to Imerina. 
Then we descended the hill, and after an hour or more we came 
to the single-plank bridges over deep water, which had always 
been a terror in the journey to or from Andrangoloaka, and 
now seemed more difficult than ever, but which we crossed 
in safety. After nearly five hours' ride we came to Mantasoa, 
and its ruined workshops and houses constructed by M. Laborde. 
We stayed for lunch at the large house, and here felt we were 
getting back to civilisation again, as we ate our meal off a table 
and sat to it on chairs ! 

Mantasoa was a remarkable place, for Madagascar, and 
when I first visited it, in 1872, was in a much more perfect 
state of preservation tnan it was at the time of this journey in 
1883. It was a large collection of massively built workshops, 
made for the manufacture of cannon, pottery, glass, gunpowder, 
brass, steel, paints, soap, refined sugar, bricks and tiles, &c. 
These w^ere erected during the reign of the Queen Ranava Our 
( 1 828-1 861), under the direction of M. Laborde, a Frenit of 
of great skill and inventive genius. To supply power ^hes 
various workshops, a stream was diverted from the rive^ 
by and brought by iron aqueducts into the buildings s< 
turn a number of large water-wheels. At the time of 



! 



FROM COAST TO CAPITAL. 1 3 

visit to Mantasoa the largest workshop was still crowned by its 
high-pitched roof covered with tiles. The walls of this building 
are of dressed stonework, massive as that of a castle and about 
6 feet in thickness. In this building the furnaces and cannon- 
casting apparatus were still existing, and in the four smaller 
workshops much of the water-wheel machinery still remained. 
The forge, of beautifully dressed stone, had then its roof nearly 
perfect, surrounding the openings to the furnaces ; and there were 
two kilns, also of well-finished masonry, for firing the pottery 
manufactured there. Many of the buildings and workshops, 
however, were made of clay, and had become shapeless heaps 
of earth. All around the hillsides were covered with the ruins 
of villages which had been built for the accommodation of the 
various workpeople, about two thousand in number. 

One other point may be mentioned in connection with this 
remarkable creation of M. Laborde's skill, but one of a less 
pleasing character, viz., that during the long persecution between 
the years 1 836-1861, many of the Malagasy Christians had to 
work as a punishment at these great buildings. For several 
years some of them had to labour in quarrying the stone and in 
building these massive workshops. I have been told by the 
pastor of one of the country churches formerly under my charge, 
that he and others had no rest either on Sundays or on other 
days, and that their bondage was very severe, many of them 
dying under its pressure. So that the accession of Radama II. 
was welcomed by them especially as a time of " liberty to the 
\ captives and the opening of the prison to those that were 
bound." 

A leisurely ride of about two hours brought us early in the 

, )on to Ambatomanga ; and here we stayed at the big 

a s"lim,°^ ^^^ A^tdriana, the feudal lord of the place, where we 

diffe-^ the comfort of a good house, and had a good deal of 

j^^j^/ith the native evangelist stationed here. For the first 

withi" came upon signs of war preparation : all the lads were 

,e f iV^ith shield and spear, and are being constantly exercised 



14 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

in their use. Going to the tomb on the rock above the town, 
just before sunset, the great, bare hills, with their bones of rock 
showing through the skin of turf; the bright, fresh green of the 
newly planted rice-fields ; the red clay roads on the brownish- 
green hills, all told us we were again in the heart of Madagascar. 
It is needless to describe our five hours' ride into Antananarivo 
on the following day, or the hearty welcome from our friends, 
both English and Malagasy, on our arrival. This was all the 
more hearty, as we had come up when war was going on, and 
when some had feared to come at all at such a time. But we 
never doubted then or afterwards that we did the right thing, 
for our work suffered little interruption during the war, and our 
help was needed after six years' absence from the country and 
the people whom we wished to serve. 






-i- 



CHAPTER 11. 

IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE; ITS PHYSICAL 
FEATURES AND VILLAGE LIFE. 



Recent advances in knowledge of Madagascar geography — Recent journeys — 
Tamatave — Mode of travelling — Coast lagoons — Scenery — Forest and climb- 
ing plants — Ankay Plain — Upper forest belt — Imerina or Ankova, " Home of 
the Hova " — Mountains and prominent peaks — Bare uplands — Geology and 
colour of soil — Extinct volcanoes — Watershed of island — Lakes — Population 
— Sacred towns — Village fortifications — Maps of Imerina — An Imerina village 
— Ancient villages on high hills — Hova houses and arrangements — Ox- 
fattening pits — Native tombs — Trees — Hova children and games — Village 
chapels and schools. 

SINCE 1 86 1, when the reign of terror under the Queen 
Ranavalona I. came to an end, great advances have 
been made in our knowledge of the topography and physical 
geography of the island, and of its geology, botany, and natural 
history ;■ much has also been ascertained as to its people, their 
divisions, language, customs, traditions, and folk-lore ; and every 
year sees additions made to a fuller understanding both of 
Madagascar and of the Malagasy. Papers on the geography of 
the island, and describing various exploratory journeys, have 
; appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 
•i and in those of the Scottish Geographical Society ; and we owe 
much to the late Rev. Dr. Mullens, the Rev. W. Deans Cowan, 
I Mr. Willilam Johnson, Captain S. P. Oliver, and others, for thus 
jigiving tne results either of their own researches, or for sum- 



\ I 



l6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

marising the journeys of other travellers.^ Comparatively little, 
however, has been made known as to the central province of 
Imerina, the heart of Madagascar, the home of the dominant 
tribe, the Hova, and the centre of government ; or about the 
capital city, Antananarivo, where civilisation, education, and 
Christianity have made the greatest progress. 

Before, however, describing Imerina, I will give a very brief 
summary of what has been done during the last few years to fill 
up the blanks on the map of the great island. In 1879 I con- 
tributed a paper to the Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc, entitled, "The 
History and Present Condition of our Geographical Knowledge 
of Madagascar," in which I pointed out what had been done 
up to that date 2 ; and since then several journeys have been 
made in various directions into regions either previously alto- 
gether unknown or only very superficially explored. 

In the years 1877 and 1878 journeys were made in the 
northern and north-western parts of the island, as well as from 
thence to the capital, by a German naturalist. Dr. Chr. Ruten- 
berg. His researches added a good deal to botany and natural 
history, but not much to geography, although probably we 
should have learnt more on this point but for his murder by 
his treacherous native followers. It was not until 1880 that 
detailed accounts were published of his collections and dis- 
coveries. 

A valuable addition was made in 1882 to our knowledge of 
the southern central provinces of Betsileo, Bara, and Tanala, 
by a paper contributed to the Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. by the 
Rev. W. D. Cowan, giving a very full map of those portions 
of Madagascar from personal survey. Mr. Cowan was a mis- 
sionary of the London Missionary Society in the Betsileo for 
several years, and utilised his numerous journeys for teaching 

^ I would remark here that I must not be understood as ignoring the valuable 
work of several French cartographers, as MM. Laillet and Suberbie, Pere Roblet, 
and especially M, Alfred Grandidier. In the above paragraph I aifn specially 
noticing the work of English labourers in the field of Madagascar geography. 

2 This paper forms the first chapter of The Great African Island. \ 



IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. I7 

and evangelising by doing useful geographical work, as well 
as by contributing to fuller knowledge of the natural history 
of the island. 

During the progress of the Franco-Malagasy war in 1884, 
an American naval officer, Lieut. Mason Shufeldt, made a 
journey from Morondava, on the west coast, to Antananarivo. 
I have, however, been unable to obtain any account of Lieut. 
Shufeldt's travels, although, no doubt, full reports have been 
presented to the United States Government. 

In 1886 my friend, the Rev. R. Baron, F.L.S., made a long 
journey through the Antsihanaka province northwards, and 
crossing to the north-west coast, by the districts called Androna 
and Befandriana, to the Hova garrison town of Anorontsanga. 
The most interesting discovery was the former existence of a 
large lake, running north and south for more than two hundred 
miles, with a breadth of from fifteen to twenty miles. Of this 
lake, the present lake of Alaotra, in Antsihanaka, about twenty- 
five miles long, is the small and still slowly diminishing remnant. 
Mr. Baron traced indubitable proofs of the former height of 
the waters of this ancient lake at no less than 1,140 feet above 
the present level of the Alaotra, and he was enabled to make 
important additions to our knowledge of the geology of 
Madagascar, which he communicated in a paper to the Geo- 
logical Society in 1889. 

During 1887 Mr. Neilsen-Lund visited a part of the Bara 
province, and also the district inhabited by the "emigrant 
Tanosy," being for some time in no little peril from the un- 
friendly Bara people. He then turned to the south-east, over 
mountainous and desert country, eventually reaching the Hova 
military post of Fort Dauphin, at the south-eastern corner of 
the island. Unfortunately his journey, although very interest- 
ing, added little to the map of Madagascar. 

The same must be also said about two journeys made in 

i: 1888 by the Rev. E. O. MacMahon, of the Anglican mission, 

to the west of the island into the Sakalava country, to the 

3 



1 



l8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

district occupied by the Betsiriry tribe. In 1888 also the 
Antanambalana river, flowing into Antongil Bay, was sur- 
veyed by Mr. L. H. Ransome, and a detailed map of its course, 
with descriptive paper, appeared in the Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. 
for May of the following year. 

A fully equipped expedition, under MM. Catat and Maistre, 
arrived in Madagascar in 1889, and explored portions of 
the eastern side of the island, and crossed the previously un- 
mapped region of the extreme south. Excursions were made 
in various directions from the capital, and then the old route 
from Imerina to Tamatave was explored ; this proved to be 
difficult to traverse, taking about three times as many days as 
the usual route. The principal journey was through the Betsileo 
province into the Bara country, and then into that of the 
"emigrant Tanosy." The sources of the river Onilahy were 
discovered, and important corrections made in the mapping of 
its course. The region to Fort Dauphin was crossed, and the 
fertile valley of Ambolo visited ; and the expedition returned 
to Betsileo through the Antaisaka country. The botanical and 
natural history collections made by MM. Catat and Maistre are 
extensive and valuable, as well as those relative to anthropology 
and ethnology ; and these have now been described in French, 
English, and German geographical and other scientific journals. 

In 1 89 1 another long journey, covering more than a thousand 
miles of country, was made by Mr. Baron along the north-east 
and north-west coasts of Madagascar, as far as the extreme 
northerly point of the island. Detailed accounts of this journey 
have been published : two, giving information as to topography, 
ethnology, and philology, in the Antananarivo Annual for 1892 
and 1893, under the title of "Twelve Hundred Miles in a 
Palanquin " ; and another, with maps, in Quart Journ. Geol. 
Soc. 1895, giving the geological results of the journey. (This 
is reproduced in the last number of the Annual, xix., ^895.) 

In concluding this brief sketch of the most .important 
journeys made in Madagascar during the last few years, I 



I 



imerin'a, the central province. 19 

may also mention the issue by the eminent French traveller 
and scientist, M. Alfred Grandidier (Member of the Institute), 
of the geographical section of his great work on Madagascar, 
in from twenty to thirty quarto volumes, still in progress. 
In 1879 he published the first part of an atlas of ancient and 
early maps of the island, including that of the Arabic geo- 
grapher Edrisi (1153), the curious wall-map at Hereford 
Cathedral [circa 1300), and other quaint and interesting 
mediaeval maps, down to those — often very erroneous ones, 
mere fancy sketches — put forth as " maps of Madagascar," up 
to as recent a date as thirty years ago. In 1885 M. Grandidier 
issued a volume of text, giving a detailed historical account 
of Madagascar map-making, as well as a minute list of the 
geographical features, place-names, &c., of the entire coast-line 
of the island. In 1894 a much enlarged edition of this work 
was published, together with the second part of the atlas of 
maps, giving fac-similes of other ancient and curious maps 
of the island, as well as of various portions of the coast, 
harbours, islands, &c. In 1880 he published a map of the 
Imerina province to a scale of ^o^y^ oou > ^"^^ i^ ^^^^ ^ ^^P 
of the remarkable chain of lagoons on the east coast, extending 
for about three hundred miles. M. Grandidier is now putting 
the finishing touches to his atlas of Madagascar maps, in which 
he will give, to a large scale, the results of all his own explora- 
tions, and include all geographical data of any value supplied 
by other travellers up to the present time. 

The eastern port of Tamatave, not far from the centre of 
that side of the island, is still, as it has been for more than three 
hundred years, the usual place of landing for all those who 
are going to the central province of Imerina and to the capital 
of the country. Travelling is still in a rather primitive stage 
in Madagascar.. There are no roads practicable for wheeled 
vehicles, and except a few bullock carts on the level grassy 
plains of the east coast, there is nothing in the way of carriage 



20 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

,or waggon for the use of travellers. Europeans, therefore, as 
well as all well-to-do Malagasy, make use of the light palanquin 
ox filanjana^ carried on the shoulders of four stout bearers, who 
mostly belong to the tribes formerly conquered by the Hova. 
On long journeys a double set of men is usually taken with 
each palanquin, while bed and bedding, stores and clothing, 
and all other necessaries, must also be carried by other bearers. 
Travelling is tedious as well as expensive. 

The road from Tamatave to Antananarivo passes first 
for about sixty miles, or two days' journey, southward, along 
the coast, generally between the line of lagoons and the sea. 
The path is perfectly level, along greensward, dotted with 
clumps of trees and patches of forest, with the lagoons on one 
side, often expanding into broad lakes of calm water, while on 
the other we have the Indian Ocean, with the never-ceasing 
surf, driven by the south-east trade winds. 

At Andovoranto, canoes are hired for a half-day's voyage 
up the river Iharoka and one of its tributaries. The palanquin 
has, however, soon to be resumed, and we begin to traverse 
hilly country. Here, for about a day's journey, we are in the 
region of the Traveller's-tree, the Bamboo, and the rofia palm, 
which fill every hollow, and give a special character to the 
scenery. We gradually get higher until, as we approach the out- 
skirts of the forest-belt, we are about 1,300 feet above sea-level. 

The comparatively easy travelling is now succeeded by 
three days' very hard work for our bearers, as we cross the 
forest which extends round so large a portion of the coast 
regions of Madagascar. The path goes up and down the hills 
at very steep gradients ; and these ascents and descents are, 
after two or three days' rain, just slopes of adhesive slippery 
clay, up and down which our men toil heavily with their loads. 
The path, although apparently descending as ofteu as it 
ascends, is really rising to a higher level, and by the time we 
get clear of forest, we have ascended the first great step, upwards 
to the interior highland. 



IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. 21 

Half a day's journey over the Ankay plain, and then across 
the Mangoro river, brings us to the foot of the second step of 
our road. Then comes the narrow belt of upper forest, very 
beautiful, but with as difficult a path through it as on any part 
of the route ; and then we emerge on the bare hills of the upper 
region, and are in the province of Imerina. 

This central region of Madagascar is sometimes termed by 
the people themselves Ankova, that is, " The place of the Hova," 
the dominant tribe of the island, who, advancing from the East 
Coast, drove out the aboriginal inhabitants, the Vazimba, and 
made it their home, probably many hundred years ago. It 
is, however, usually called Imerina, a name as to whose origin 
there have been many conjectures ; the most likely one of these 
appears to be that it is from a Malagasy root, erina, meaning 
" elevated," " prominent," " conspicuous." It is difficult to give 
the exact boundaries or extent of Imerina, as Malagasy pro- 
vinces are not defined as minutely as English counties. On 
the east it is marked by the line of upper forest ; on the 
north and west it shades off into the uninhabited region which 
there divides the Hova from other tribes ; while on the south 
it ends at the southern slopes of the Ankaratra mountains, and 
the thinly peopled region which separates the Hova territory 
from that of the northern Betsileo. Roughly speaking, Imerina 
forms an irregular parallelogram, extending about one hundred 
miles north and south, and about seventy miles from east to 
west, with an area of about 7,000 square miles — in other words, 
it is considerably larger than the county of York. 

Imerina is a mountainous country, with but little level 
ground except on the western side of Antananarivo, where 
the dried-up bed of an extensive ancient lake forms the great 
rice-plain known as Betsimitatatra. This is the granary of the 
capital, and doubtless accounts for its position, and for the 
comparatively dense population around it to the north, west, 
and south. But there are innumerable valleys where the slopes 
are terraced with rice-plots, like great green staircases, where 



21 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the grain is first sown broadcast, and from which the young 
plants are taken up and transplanted in the larger fields along 
the banks of the rivers, and in the beds of small dried-up 
lakes of ancient date. There are numerous lofty hills, of which 
Angavokely to the east, Ambohimiangara in the extreme west, 
Iharanandrlana to the south, Milangana, Ambohimanoa, and 
Andringitra more central, and Ambohipaniry and Vohilena 
to the north, are the most prominent, all forming capital 
landmarks and points from which angles can be taken in filling 
up details of the map. Then on the south-west the whole 
province is dominated by the central mass of Ankaratra, the 
peaks of which form the highest points in the island, although 
they are a little under 9,000 feet above the sea. Mr. Baron 
calls it "the wreck of a huge but ancient sub-aerial volcano." 
It covers an area of from fifty to sixty square miles, and its 
highest peaks, called Tsiafakafo, Tsiafajavona, and Ambohimi- 
randrina, are visible for an immense distance, especially to the 
west. Imerina is from 4,000 to 4,500 feet above the sea level, 
so that, although well within the tropics, it enjoys a temperate 
climate, made cool and bracing in the cooler season by the 
south-east trade winds which come fresh and moist over the 
forest belt and the wooded eastern plains. The atmosphere 
is wonderfully clear, so that hills many miles away stand out 
with a distinct outline that is very deceptive to those newly come 
from our more misty air and our grey English skies. The 
aspect of this region is bare, as it is destitute of wood, except 
in the hollows, although there are patches of forest still left in 
the northern parts of the province. There is a great extent of 
moor-like hills, so that but for the brilliant sunshine and the 
generally clear skies, Imerina would, like much of the other 
central portions of Madagascar, be somewhat dreary, especially 
as the grass gets brown and parched towards the middle of the 
dry season. 

The geological nature of the central region is shown by the 
numerous masses of granite or gneiss rock which form the 



I 



23 

summits of all the hills. In many cases these take the form of 
enormous " bosses," or rounded hills of rock ; in others they have 
the appearance of Titanic castles ; while others, again, might be 
taken, in certain aspects, to be stupendous cathedrals. Over- 
lying the primary rocks there is an immense extent of what I 
must call clay, although it is not true clay, but appears to be 
decomposed granite. This is usually deep red in colour, from 
the large amount of iron oxide, although it is occasionally 
brown, and sometimes white, like China clay. Iron is abundant, 
and gold has recently been discovered in many places. Quartz 
in many varieties, quartzite, graphite, galena, copper, saltpetre, 
tourmaline, and some other minerals, are also found in Imerina. 

Two groups of ancient and extinct volcanoes which were 
described by the late Rev. Dr. Mullens hardly come into any 
description of Imerina proper, as one of them is just outside its 
western boundary and the other group is beyond the Ankaratra 
mountains, to the south-west. There are, however, within the 
district some detached hills which appear to be old volcanic 
vents ; and these, with occasional lava flows, as well as basaltic 
dykes in several places, give evidence of ancient subterranean 
forces, now shown only by slight earthquake shocks, and by hot 
springs in certain localities. 

The water-parting of the whole island lies much nearer its 
eastern than its western side, so that all the largest rivers flow 
across Madagascar and fall into the Mozambique Channel. The 
head-waters of the two chief rivers of Imerina, the Ikopa, and 
the Betsiboka, and of their numerous affluents, are therefore on 
the eastern side of the province. The Ikopa, fed by the Sisaony, 
the Andromba, the Mamba, and other streams, flow through 
the fertile plain of Betsimitatatra, going north-west, and is 
joined by the Betsiboka further north ; the united streams, now 
known by the latter name, falling into the head of the Bay of 
Bembatoka. The province is thus well watered by numerous 
rivers, although the annual rainfall only averages about 53 
inches at Antananarivo. 



24 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The only lake of any size in Imerina is that of Itasy, on its 
extreme western limits ; close to it, on the west, are numerous 
extinct craters ; indeed, the lake itself has probably been formed 
by the sinking of the ground, consequent on the discharge of so 
much matter from these old volcanoes. 

The name Imerina is used by the Malagasy in two senses : 
one, with a wider meaning, including the districts of Imamo to 
the west, and Valalafotsy to the north-west, and including all the 
Hova people ; and then it is also used more restrictedly for the 
part which is exclusive of these two divisions of the country. 
This narrower Imerina is divided into six sections, known as 
" Imerina-enin-tbko," and comprising Avaradrano, which includes 
the capital (to the north-east), Vakintsisaony (south-east), 
Marovatana (north-west), Ambodirano (south-west), Vonizongo 
(further north-west), and Vakinankaratra (further south-west), 
which last division is named from the mountain mass which it 
includes, and which cuts it off from the others. 

These divisions are largely tribal, and are used by the native 
government in arranging the different shares of military levies, 
taxation, and all the various unpaid and forced service due by 
the people to their sovereign. 

There are no means of ascertaining with certainty the popula- 
tion of Imerina, as no census has ever been taken. But from 
calculations which have been made as to the number of villages 
and houses, and the average occupants of a house, it is believed 
that the population of the province is about 1,100,000.^ Antana- 
narivo is by far the largest town in Imerina or in Madagascar. 
There is hardly any other town of great size, although there is 
a considerable number of large villages, and these are rather 
closely crowded together in some parts, especially to the north 
and north-west of the capital. Several of these places were 
formerly of greater relative importance, as they were the capitals 
of the many small states, or " kingdoms," into which Imerina 

* The recent census — March, 1896— gives only 600,000 souls as the population 
of the province Imerina. — Ed. 



IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. 2$ 

was anciently divided, before the supreme authority became 
centred in the chief of Antananarivo. Of these former chief 
towns the following are the most noteworthy: Ambohimanga, 
a place which still retains a nominal equality in royal speeches 
with Antananarivo a picturesque old town built on a lofty hill 
surrounded with woods, about eleven miles north of the modern 
capital ; also Ambohidratrimo, Ambohidrabiby, Ilafy, Alasora, 
and some others. In former times, every royal speech men- 
tioned twelve old towns or hills (" Ny Tendrombohitra rba ainbin' 
ny folo "), each of which had a semi-sacred character as being 
the seat of ancient chiefs ; the places just mentioned were in- 
cluded in these twelve, but others are now mere hamlets, if not 
as much deserted villages as Old Sarum was in pre-Reforin days 
in England. 

All the ancient towns and villages in the interior of Mada- 
gascar were built on the top of hills, sometimes of considerable 
height. This was of course for security against enemies in the 
former warlike times, when every petty state was frequently 
fighting with its neighbours, like the barons of European castles 
in the mediaeval period. Protection was further given by deep 
fosses dug out of the hard red clay, and surrounding the towns. 
These are frequently double, or even treble, one outside the 
other, and must have formed a very effectual defence in the days 
when firearms were unknown, and especially when helped by the 
earthen ramparts often added inside the ditches from the material 
dug out. Some of these fosses look like a railway cutting 
through red sandstone, and although they are in many cases 
probably two or three hundred years old, the sides are generally 
as perpendicular and unbroken as when first excavated. A 
narrow bridge of the red earth leads to the gateway, which is 
formed of massive blocks of rock. Two different forms of gate- 
way are found in these old towns : one kind is defended by a 
great circular slab of stone lO or 12 feet in diameter, which, in 
time of war, was rolled between upright stones, so as to effec- 
ll tually block up the entrance. Another kind of gateway was 



,1 



26 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

formed by massive upright monoliths, between which heavy 
wooden gates were fixed. In many cases there is a treble gate- 
way of this kind, with a narrow passage between each gate, so 
that the enemy could be speared from above, if the first or even 
the second line of defence had been broken through. Many of 
these old towns are now deserted, but their ancient defences form 
the chief antiquities of Madagascar, and are interesting memorials 
of a state of society now passed away in the central provinces. 

The ancient graves of the Vazimba, the aboriginal inhabi- 
tants of the interior, are found scattered over the central province. 
These are shapeless heaps of stone, generally overshadowed 
by a fdno tree, a species of acacia, which has a semi-sacred 
character, its seeds being used in divination. Could these graves, 
like our ancient English barrows, be opened, doubtless much 
light would be thrown on the rather difficult question of the affi- 
nities of these Vazimba; but to meddle with any tomb, much more 
one of these ancient ones, is one of the most heinous offences 
among the Malagasy.^ A considerable number of upright 
stones, termed vdtolahy (lit. " male stones "), huge undressed 
blocks of granite, are also found on the hills and downs. These 
are memorials of former chieftains, or of battles of the old times. 

As regards maps of Imerina, I believe that I was the first (in 
1867) to make a sketch-map of the country round Antananarivo. 
This was, however, made chiefly to show the mission stations of 
the London Missionary Society. Parts of the province to the 
south-west were subsequently given much more fully by Mr. 
J. S. Sewell and Mr. W. Johnson ; but the first detailed map 
of Imerina and the surrounding regions was published by the 
Rev. Dr. Mullens in 1875, as the result of a large number of 
observations taken by himself, and founded on positions fixed 
by Mr. James Cameron. A map to a much larger scale 
(i : 200,000) was published by M. Grandidier in 1880; and hej 
issued more recently (1883) a beautiful hypsometrical map oi 
the province, showing by graduated tints the heights of every] 
^ For fuller information as to the Vazimba, see subsequent chapter. 



mi / 





^?r 




I 




fi 



4 



IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. 2J 

part of the country from the river-beds to the summits of 
Ankaratra. " This," says M. Grandidier, " is, I beHeve, the first 
and only contour map which has been made of an uncivilised 
country on such a large scale. This map enables one to see at 
a glance the zones of altitude characteristic of this province, 
which is so mountainous and desolate beyond the great plain 
west of Antananarivo ; and it shows clearly the manner in which 
the waters part themselves." 

A few words may be here added as to the external aspects 
of an Imerina village. As already mentioned, all the ancient 
villages and towns were built on the tops of high hills, and are 
consequently rather difficult to approach ; and although a great 
many of them are now deserted, and the more modern villages 
are built either on the plains or on the lower rising grounds, 
numbers of the old places still remain inhabited ; and the people 
who live in them must have a weary climb every evening as 
they go home from their work in the rice-fields, or return from 
a neighbouring village or market. Even the capital city, 
Antananarivo, is built on the top and the sides of a long, narrow 
ridge rising about 600 feet above the plain below. The old 
capital, Ambohimanga, is on an equally high hill, and so are 
most of the ancient and famous towns and villages. Some of 
these hills rise to 700 or 800 feet in height ; and a few years ago 
I had to climb up to a village called Vohilena, which is built on 
a tremendous hill no less than 1,500 feet above the valley at its 
foot. Never shall I forget my ascent up its steep side in the 
darkness, without a guide, and unable to find any path in the 
woods that cover its slopes ! 

The deep fosses which surround these old villages have already 
been alluded to. Most of them are from 20 to 30 feet wide and 
as many feet deep, although sometimes they are much deeper. 
But although so deep, these trenches are not full of water, for 
this is always drawn off by another trench leading down the 
hillside. They are, however, of course damp, and good soil 
gradually increases there, so that ferns and wild plants grow 



28 MADAGASCAR- BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

luxuriantly; and the bottom of the fosse therefore forms a 
plantation, in which peach, banana, guava, and other fruit-trees 
are cultivated, as well as coffee, arums, and a variety of vege- 
tables. Tall trees of other kinds also grow there, so that these 
hady, as they are called, are often by far the prettiest feature of 
the village. On many hill-tops in Imerina, where no villages 
now exist, the hddy may be seen from a great distance, scoring 
the hillsides, and showing that in former times a village crowned 
the summit. 

In some parts of the central provinces of Madagascar there 
is no deep fosse, such as those just described, but the village is 
protected by a dense and wide plantation of prickly-pear.^ This 
shrub is armed all over with spines and prickles 2 inches 
long, sharp as a needle and somewhat poisonous. The thick, 
fleshy, twisted stems, the gaily-tinted flowers, and even the 
pear-shaped fruits, are all armed with spines and stinging hairs ; 
and it is no easy matter to get rid of the minute little needles if 
they once get into one's skin. So it is easy to see that a hedge 
of^this prickly-pear, several feet wide and 8 or 10 feet high, 
is a very effectual defence against enemies or robbers, especially 
when it is remembered that the majority of people wear no shoes 
and so have no protection for their bare legs and feet. In 
many places, instead of prickly-pear, the fence round the village 
is made of tsidfakomby (" impassable by cattle "), a shrub with 
bright yellow flowers and full of hook-like prickles.2 

Now let us get up into the village and see what it looks like. 
Crossing the deep hddy by a kind of bridge of earth, we come 
to the entrance or vdvahddy (" mouth of the fosse "). This is 
generally a narrow gateway formed of roughly-built stonework ; 
and on its inner side, in a groove, is a great circular slab of 
granite, for rolling across the opening, so as to quite close it up. 
But for many years past, in most villages, these great slabs of 
stone have been unused, and the grooves are filled up with dust 

^ Opiintia Dillcnii, Haw. 

2 The Mysore thorn, Ccvsalpinia sepiaria, Roxb. 



IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. 29 

and dirt, so that it is not very easy to move the stone out of its 
place. In many villages the great stone lies on the ground, and 
the children play games upon it, showing that for a long time 
there has been no war in the interior of the island, but people 
have been able to live in security and peace, " none daring to 
make them afraid." In some cases, instead of a door at the 
gateway, a number of short poles are hung from a cross-piece at 
the top, which passes through a hole in each of them ; and one 
has to hold up two or three of them in order to pass through. 
This kind of gate is chiefly for the purpose of preventing the 
pigs and sheep from getting in and out of the village. In some 
parts of Imerina, to the west and north, where there is frequent 
danger from roving parties of robbers, the villages are still care- 
fully guarded, and many of them have a treble gateway, with 
three pairs of thick wooden doors, and connected by a kind of 
tunnel. 

Here, however, we are at last inside the village, and we see at 
once that there are no streets intersecting it. The houses are 
built without any order or regularity, except in one point, 
namely, that all the old-fashioned houses are built north and 
south, and that they have their single door and window always 
on the west side, so as to be protected from the cold and keen 
south-east trade- winds, which blow over Imerina during the 
greater part of the year. The houses are mostly made of the 
hard red earth, laid in courses of a foot or so high. They are 
chiefly of one storey and of one room, but they generally have a 
floor in the roof, which is used for cooking, and are sometimes 
divided into two or three rooms by rush and mat partitions. 
On the east of Imerina, near the forest, the houses are made of 
rough wooden framing, filled up with bamboo or rush, and often 
plastered with cow-dung ; and in the neighbourhood of the 
capital a great many houses are now built of sun-dried bricks 
in two storeys, with several rooms and often with tiled roofs. 
These, however, belong to the richer people. 

Ambohitritankady, one of the villages in my mission district. 



30 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

is on a high hill, and in the centre of the village are ten large 
houses of massive timber framing and with very high-pitched 
roofs, with long " horns " at the gables, arranged five on each 
side of a long oblong space sunk a couple of feet below the 
ground. Here, in former times, bull-fights took place, and 
various games and amusements were carried on. One of the 
houses, where the chief himself resided, is much larger than the 
rest, and the corner posts, as well as the three great central 
posts supporting the ridge, are very large, massive pieces of 
timber. It was all in one great room without any partitions, 
the whole being well floored with wood, and the walls covered 
with neat mats. Such fine old houses are now, however, be- 
coming very rare, and are being fast superseded by much less 
picturesque, but perhaps more comfortable, as well as cheaper, 
houses of sun-dried or burnt brick. 

The houses of most villages are scattered about the place in 
a very irregular fashion. There is no privacy or retirement 
about them, no backyard or outbuildings, although occasionally 
low walls do make a kind of enclosure round some of them. 
Here and there among the houses are square pits, 5 or 6 
feet deep and 8 or 10 feet square, called fahitra. These 
are pens for the oxen, often very fine animals, with enormous 
horns and humps, which are kept in them to be fattened, mostly 
for the national feast of the Fandroaua (" the bathing ") at the 
New Year. All sorts of rubbish and filth accumulate ; there are 
no sanitary arrangements ; frequently the cattle are penned for 
the night in a part of the enclosure, and the cow-dung makes it 
very muddy in wet weather, and raises clouds of dust when it is 
dry. Frequently the cow-dung is carefully collected and made 
into circular cakes of 6 or 8 inches diameter, which are then 
stuck on the walls of the houses to dry. It is afterwards used 
as fuel for burning off large slabs of the hard gneiss rock, which 
are employed by the people in making their tombs. 

The pits in which the people store their rice are bottle- 
shaped holes, from 8 to 10 feet deep, dug out of the hard red 



IMERINA, THE CENTRAL PROVINCE. 3 1 

earth, and will contain a large quantity of grain. They are 
closed up by a flat stone and covered with earth, so it is not 
easy for a stranger to know where the rice-store is. In former 
times these pits were now and then used as places of refuge, and 
even of worship, by Christian people in the time of persecution ; 
and occasionally those who had offended the sovereign were 
placed in the pits, which were partly filled up with earth, boiling 
water being then poured over them until they were killed. 

In the centre of the village may often be seen the large 
family tomb of the chief man of the place, the owner of the 
land and the rice-fields in the neighbourhood. This is a struc- 
ture of dressed or of rough stonework, from 12 to 20 feet 
square, and about 6 to 8 feet high. Generally it has two or 
more stages diminishing in area, and frequently at the east 
end is a kind of headstone, in modern tombs sometimes with a 
name and date cut upon it. These tombs are vaults made of 
great undressed slabs of blue rock, partly sunk under ground, 
and with stone shelves on which the corpses, wrapped in silk 
cloths, are laid. The steps down to the vault are always on the 
west side, and the door is a massive stone slab turning on pivots 
at the top and bottom. In the case of people who are Andriana, 
or of noble birth, the stonework is surmounted by a small wooden 
house, with thatched or shingled roof and a door, but no window. 
This is called trano masina (" sacred house ") or trdno nianara 
("cold house "), because it has no hearth or fire. In some villages, 
where the people are almost all of high rank, a line of these 
tombs, with their little wooden houses, may be observed. 

Seen from a distance, these Malagasy villages often look 
very pretty and picturesque, for " distance lends enchantment to 
the view." Round some of them tall trees, called Avmvy,^ a 
species of fig-tree, grow, which are something like an English 
elm in appearance. In others one or two gresit Amontana ^ trees 
may be seen ; these are also a species of fig-tree, and have large 
and glossy leaves. A beautiful tree called Zcihana 3 is also 

^ Ficus niegafoda, Baker, ^ F. Baroni, Baker. 3 Phyllavthron Bojeriamun, D.C. 



32 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

common, with hundreds of large pink flowers ; and in the fosses 
tho. Amlana,^ a tall tree nettle with large, deeply-cut, and velvety- 
leaves, with stinging hairs, frequently grows. Many kinds of 
shrubs often make the place gay with flowers ; but these all 
grow wild, and the people have not yet learned to plant flowers 
in beds and gardens for their own pleasure. 

The Hova children are brown-skinned, some very light olive 
in colour, and some very dark. As a rule, they have little 
clothing, and no caps, shoes, or stockings, and are usually very 
dirty and uncared for. On Sundays and on special occasions 
the girls are often dressed in print frocks, and the boys in 
jackets of similar material, and with clean white calico lamba 
over all ; but on week-days a small lamba^ of soiled and coarse 
hemp cloth, often forms almost their only clothing. Of course 
the children of well-to-do people are sometimes very nicely 
dressed, although they too often go about in a rather dirty 
fashion. I am here, however, speaking of the majority of the 
children one sees, those of the poorer people of the village. 
One day some of us went for a ride to a village about two miles 
away from Ambohimanga. A number of children followed us 
about as we collected ferns in the hady^ and as a group of seven 
or eight of them sat near us, we calculated that the value of all 
they had on would not amount to one shilling ! 

Poor children ! they have few amusements. They some- 
times play at a game which is very like our " fox and geese " ; 
the boys spin peg-tops ; the little children make figures of oxen 
and birds, &c., out of clay ; and the big boys have a rough and 
violent game called maniely diamanga^ in which they kick back- 
ward at each other, with their feet lifted almost as high as their 
heads. Perhaps the most favourite amusement of Malagasy 
children is to sit in parties out of doors on fine moonlight nights, 
and sing away for hours some of the monotonous native chants, 
accompanying them with regular clapping of hands. 

One thing more may be noticed about our Malagasy village, 
^ JJrera sp. and Obetia sp. 



33 

and that is, that in almost all the larger villages of Imerina 
there is now to be seen a building for Christian worship. In 
many places this is a rough and plain structure, made of clay or 
of sun-dried brick, often with no glass in the windows, and no 
pews or benches on the floor. Still, in these rude country 
churches, God's Word is read and preached, the love of Christ 
is made known, and some light is being shed upon the minds of 
the people, who are most of them still very ignorant and super- 
stitious. In the neighbourhood of the capital, however, as well 
as in some other districts, many very neat and pretty village 
churches are now to be seen. These are plastered and coloured, 
and often have tiled roofs and glass windows ; there are low 
benches and clean mats on the floor, and some few have well- 
carved stone and wood pulpits, showing that the people have 
worked hard and done their best to make a building that shall 
be suitable for the worship of God. 

Besides being used for Divine service on Sundays, the village 
church is also the school-house on week-days. Here may be 
seen bright children repeating their a^ b, d (not c\ reading and 
writing, doing sums, learning a little grammar and geography, 
and being taught their catechism and something about the chief 
facts and truths of the Bible. And perhaps there is no more 
pleasant sight to be seen in Madagascar than one of the larger 
chapels filled to the doors on the annual examination day with 
children from the neighbouring villages, all dressed in their best 
eager to show their knowledge, and pleased to get the Testa- 
ment or hymn-book or other prize given to those who have 
answered well. 

Thank God there are now hundreds of such village churches 
and schools in Central Madagascar. May they soon be seen all 
over the provinces of the great island ! 






CHAPTER III, 

\ 

ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL : ITS PUBLIC BUILDINGS, 

MEMORIAL AND OTHER CHURCHES, AND RELIGIOUS ' 
AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. ,; 

Scenery around the capital — Its picturesque situation — Rugged streets and paths ? 
— Houses and other buildings — Recent introduction of bricks — Royal palaces ■ 
— Faravohitra — Ancient gateway — Sacred stones — Absence of wheeled 
vehicles and of gas and water supply — Street scenes — ^Weekly market of 
Zoma — Amusements — L.M.S. churches and religious institutions — Ambatona- 
kanga Church — Other memorial churches — " Mother churches " and districts 
— Chapel Royal — Sunday observance — Colleges and school buildings — Dis- 
pensaries and hospitals — Other missions — Extent of Christian work carried 
on — Civilising work of L.M.S. Mission — Population — Plans of the capital — 
Antananarivo, the heart of Madagascar. 

THE chief city of Madagascar is situated nearly in the 
centre of the island, as regards its length from north to 
south, but is much nearer the eastern than the western side of 
the country. It is about one hundred miles from the Indian 
Ocean to the east, while the Mozambique Channel is nearly ,' 
twice that distance from it to the west.^ 

Let us suppose that we have just come up from Tamatave, 
and, by the route described in the first chapter, have passed 
through the two belts of forest, and are now on the open, breezy 
moorland of eastern Imerina. Antananarivo is still about thirty 
miles distant, a good day's journey from the upper line of forest. 
We see signs of a denser population as we advance : well- 

^ By the latest and most reliable observations, the following has been settled as 
, the position of Antananarivo : Lat., i8° 55' 2'io"-2*i8" S. ; long., 47° 3^' '^ 

34 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 35 

cultivated rice-fields in every valley, plantations on the hillsides, 
numerous villages, and scattered homesteads, the houses being 
built of the hard red clay or decomposed granite, while the walls 
enclosing the compounds are also of this material. We pass the 
long mountain of Angavokely, with its double summit, one peak 
having a remarkable resemblance to a mediaeval castle ; and then 
the rounded, dome-like mass of Ambatovory, with its woods — a 
remnant of the primeval forest — nestling in the valley at its 
base ; and then a long, gradual ascent brings us to a high moor, 
from which a very extensive prospect is unfolded ; the greater 
part of Imerina lies before us, and most of its prominent hills 
and its chief towns can be clearly seen. Before us, at nine or 
ten miles' distance, is a long and lofty ridge, stretching north 
and south, on which buildings can be plainly discerned, cutting 
the sky-line ; in the centre are the lofty white roofs of the group 
of royal palaces ; to the north are the towers of the Prime 
Minister's house, its glass dome shining in the sunlight ; while 
the spires and towers of churches can also be distinguished, 
especially at each extremity of the long line of hill. From this 
lofty point we descend into deep river valleys, and ascend again 
several times before the two hours' ride still to be accomplished 
is completed ; we lose sight of the city again and again, 
until another long ascent brings us up to the last hill before 
we descend into the valley which surrounds Antananarivo ; 
and at last the capital of the island stands before us, at 
a distance of three-quarters of a mile or so across the rice- 
fields. 

It is certainly a very picturesquely situated town ; the rocky 
ridge, on the summit and slopes of which the houses are built, 
rises at its highest point, near the centre, to from 500 to 600 feet 
above the surrounding valleys and the western plain, and its 
length, north and south, is not far short of two miles. At the 
southern extremity it slopes down abruptly to the valley, but at 
the northern end the descent is more gradual. At about two- 
thirds of its length from the south, a large branch or spur of the 



[ 



36 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

hill separates from the main ridge and curves round to the 
north-west with a tolerably easy gradient ; so that the actual 
extent of the city is not realised from the eastern side, and one 
must ride round to the west to see how large a place it really 
is. The ridge, though long, is narrow, so that there is little 
level ground on the summit ; and the majority of the houses are 
built on terraces, cut away on one side and built up with retain- 
ing walls on the other. At the junction of the two northern 
branches of the hill there is a large triangular open space called 
Andohalo, where a market is held, and where great public 
assemblies are convened, as at the promulgation of any new 
law, or the reception of the sovereign on her return to the 
capital, &c. 

East and west, the sides of the hill are very steep ; indeed, on 
the western side they are precipitous. On this side is the pre- 
cipice of Ampamarinana (" the place of hurling "), the Tarpeian 
of Antananarivo, where those accused of sorcery were formerly 
killed by being hurled from the summit ; and where also, in 
1849, many Malagasy Christians suffered death, being supposed 
to have been enabled, by some powerful charm, to be dis- 
obedient to their heathen sovereign's will. 

Antananarivo, or " City of a thousand," that is, probably, a 
thousand settlers or military colonists, is certainly " a city set 
on a hill which cannot be hid." As already remarked, it is by 
far the largest town in Madagascar, only two or three places 
reaching a tenth of its extent or population. Its ancient name 
was lalamanga, i.e., " At the blue (or famous) wood," probably 
from the forest formerly covering its summit and slopes, as is 
still the case with Ambohimanga, the ancient capital. Antanana- 
rivo has attained its present important position in the island 
only within the last hundred years, greatly increasing in size 
and population since it became no longer merely the chief town 
of one Malagasy tribe — the Hova — but also the capital of the 
country through the Hova making themselves the dominant 
tribe of Madagascar. 



II 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 37 

It need hardly be said that road-making is very difficult in a 
place like Antananarivo. The naked rock comes to the surface 
almost everywhere ; and the gradients, east and west at least, 
would be almost impossible for a carriage, even could the path 
be paved smooth. There are, in fact, only about two main 
roads in the city, one going north and south, and the other east 
and west. These are roughly paved in some parts ; but it 
requires care even to ride on horseback along Antananarivo 
streets. The houses are not built adjoining each other, as in 
European towns ; each one stands in its own compound ; al- 
though certainly in the centre of the city they are packed pretty 
closely together, and often the only path to large and respectable 
houses is by climbing low walls and struggling up and down 
narrow and steep rocky stairs. 

Notwithstanding these drawbacks, Antananarivo now pos- 
sesses a large number of substantial and often handsome houses, 
as well as many public buildings which would not disgrace a 
European town. A great change has come about since I first 
knew the place in 1863. Then it was a town built entirely, 
within the city proper, of wood or rush and bamboo. By an 
old law, or rather custom, no building of stone or clay was 
allowed to be erected within these limits ; and there was a 
similar custom in many of the other ancient towns. The houses 
of the nobles and the wealthier people were all of massive 
timber framing, fitted in with thick upright planking, and the 
roof of extremely high pitch, with long crossed gable-timbers or 
" horns." These houses were sometimes roofed with wooden 
shingles, but more frequently with thatch of a species of sedge. 
It will be easily seen that with such combustible materials fires 
were of frequent occurrence, especially at the end of the dry 
season ; and twenty, thirty, or even a hundred houses were not 
unfrequently burnt down at one time. The acceptance of 
Christianity by the Queen and Government in 1868 put an end 
to this foolish custom, as well as to many other still more harm- 
ful things ; and the old timber houses have now almost dis- 



38 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

appeared from the city. An interesting relic of the past is still 
preserved with religious care in the palace yard among more 
modern buildings. This is the ancient royal house called 
Besakana, where the corpse of a deceased sovereign lies in state, 
the building being draped entirely in scarlet cloth. 

The introduction of sun-dried brick and tiles by Mr. James 
Cameron and Mr. W. Pool, of the London Missionary Society, 
as well as the erection of the stone Martyr Memorial Churches, 
of which I was the architect, has completely revolutionised the 
building art in Imerina and in Betsileo. And Antananarivo, 
instead of being a town of wooden and rush houses, as I knew 
it thirty-two years ago, has become a city containing hundreds 
of good two- and three-storied brick houses, with many public 
buildings of stone. Within the last ten or twelve years burnt 
brick has come into much more general use ; and many sub- 
stantial houses and some churches are now to be seen erected of 
this more durable material. Scores of houses have their verandah 
pillars of moulded brick, or of stone with carved capitals. There 
are, it must be confessed, some drawbacks to the otherwise 
pleasant picture. There are too many houses unfinished, and a 
general aspect of disrepair visible, and a want of neatness and 
tidiness. 

Among the most prominent buildings of the capital are the 
group of royal palaces, the largest of which, an immense three- 
storied timber structure, has been surrounded with triple stone 
verandah and arches, and strengthened with corner towers. 
This largest of the royal buildings is known by the name of 
Manjdkamiddana, £^., " Reigning peacefully"; it is about 120 
feet in height to the ridge of the high-pitched roof, which is 
surmounted at each end by tall lightning-conductors, and in the 
centre by an enormous gilt copper figure of an eagle — a bird 
which is used as a kind of national emblem, much as is the case 
with the eagles of America and several European states. Close 
to this largest palace stands the Trdnovola or " Silver house," 
about two-thirds the size of its larger neighbour, but entirely of 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 39 

timber. There are several other palaces, each having its proper 
name, as Mananipisoa ("Adding good"), Besdkana ("Great 
breadth"), &c. This last-named building is the most ancient and 
venerated of all ; it is a simple oblong structure of framed 
timber, with upright planking, and a roof of enormously high 
pitch, covered with wooden shingles, and crossed "horns," 10 
or 12 feet long, at each gable.^ 

In the palace courtyard the spire and tower of the Chapel 
Royal is a conspicuous feature. The building is constructed of 
stone and roofed with slates from the Betsileo province. It 
boasts of a pipe organ, tinted glass windows, and a good deal 
of elaborate carving both in wood and stone. Further south is 
the great square stone and brick house of the Prime Minister, 
and other handsome residences of nobles and high officers, and 
the High Court of Justice, with its Ionic columns. Very 
prominent in Antananarivo also are buildings for religious and 
educational purposes ; the four Memorial Churches of the 
London Missionary Society, each with spire or tower, together 
with about a score more (belonging to the same mission), less 
ornate in style, in the city and its suburbs ; the Anglican 
Cathedral, although still wanting its spires ; the Roman Catholic 
Cathedral, with its elegant lantern-crowned towers ; the Nor- 
wegian Lutheran Church ; the College of the London Missionary 
Society and the High Schools of the same society, as well as 
those of the Friends, the Anglican, and the Jesuit missions ; 
the Mission presses ; the London Missionary Society's and 
Norwegian Hospitals and Dispensaries ; while about two miles 
to the east is a French Observatory, superintended by a Jesuit 
priest. 

As one's eye passes along the long wavy ridge of the city hill, 
from south to north, it is seen to slope gradually to the plain at 
the northern extremity. This portion of the capital is called 
Faravohitra, i.e.^ " Last village," its former extremity northward, 

^ It is the custom for Malagasy sovereigns to build a new house for themselves 
soon after their accession. 



40 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

although the city has now extended far beyond this spot. 
Thirty years ago this part of the ridge was a desolate-looking 
place, with hardly a house upon it ; a number of ancient tombs 
stretched along the rough footpath ; it was one of the places of 
execution, and no one would walk along it after nightfall. Now, 
however, and for many years past, it is a favourite part of the 
city, the majority of the English mission families residing there ; 
while amongst them is seen the square tower of the Faravohitra 
Memorial Church, and many of the educational establishments 
of the L.M.S. and Friends' Missions. 

The most ancient structure in Antananarivo is the old gate- 
way to the east of the city, the only one now remaining of 
several gates formerly guarding the chief approaches to the 
capital. This interesting relic of the olden time is a mass of 
rude masonry of thin, flat stones laid without mortar, with large 
upright slabs of blue gneiss at the angles. The opening is a 
square doorway several feet deep, and in time of war was closed 
by a huge flat circular stone which was rolled out of a groove 
inside the gateway. The name of this ancient gate is Ankadi- 
bevava, i.e.^ " At the Fosse with the great Mouth," or opening ; 
but it is also as often called Ambavahadimitafo, i.e.^ " At the 
Roofed Gateway," because it is covered with a rush roof. 

The " sacred stones " of Antananarivo are objects which are 
onnected with royalty among the Hova and mark it — amongst 
many other things — as a different place from European cities. 
One of these is situated in Andohalo, a spacious triangular open 
space in the centre of the capital, where a large daily market is 
held, where public assemblies take place, and where some of the 
sovereigns have been crowned. The sacred stone here is nothing 
but the underlying gneiss rock, which in one spot comes to the 
surface ; but upon it the sovereign must always stand on special 
occasions, as when returning from a visit to Ambohimanga or 
more distant places, and is there saluted by the army and by 
the people generally. The other sacred stone is a much more 
prominent object, and appears to be a boulder-like mass of 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 4I 

gneiss which has at some remote time tumbled down from the 
precipitous western side of the city hill, and stands nearly in the 
centre of a large square plain on that side of Antananarivo. 
This open space is called Imahamasina, i.e., " Place of making 
sacred " (or establishing or confirming). Some Hova sovereigns 
have been crowned here (or rather, first appeared in state for the 
homage of their subjects), and the throne is always placed on 
the sacred stone. One is here reminded of the sacred stones on 
which the kings of other nations have been enthroned in ancient 
times, and especially of our own " Stone of Destiny " from Scone 
now and for so many centuries past placed under the chair of 
Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey. 

From whatever side one goes up into Antananarivo, the 
ascent is steep, in most places exceedingly so, and most rugged 
and uneven. It is immediately evident that no carriage could 
traverse these roughly-paved roads ; such things are in fact 
unknown in this large city, and so the streets are singularly 
quiet, with no rush of wheels or tramp of horses, while the great 
majority of human feet are shoeless and so almost noiseless in 
their tread. There are only two or three streets, in our sense of 
the term, in this capital of Madagascar, that is where a tolerably 
good pavement has been laid down with side gutters, &c. The 
greater part of the houses are reached by narrow paths winding 
in and out among the compounds, and sometimes there is no 
access to a house but by crossing the yards of others, and often 
only by climbing over the low clay walls which surround them. 
As we pass along we see how difficult and costly it would be to 
make roads and streets in Antananarivo, for each compound is 
a terrace cut out of the steep hillside, built up on one side by 
the soil and rock removed from the other. Of course drainage 
is all surface, and in the heavy rains of the wet season 
each street and path is swept by a furious torrent, often 
forming a series of rapids and waterfalls, and constantly 
cutting deep trenches in the red soil, so that every path not 
protected by some kind of rough paving is being constantly 



I 



42 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

lowered, some streets being many feet below the compounds 
on either hand. 

It need hardly be said that there are no water-pipes or gas 
mains in the streets of Antananarivo. The want of the former 
is supplied by the primitive plan of all water being fetched from 
springs at the foot of the city hill by the women and girls — 
slave or free — of every household. Long lines of these may be 
seen in the evenings going up and down the rough paths with 
their water-pots on their heads. At nights the streets are dark 
and almost deserted, but for the lantern carried by an occasional 
passenger. Few Europeans or respectable natives care to risk 
their limbs by going without a light over these breakneck 
paths. 

A prominent feature in the life of Antananarivo is the great 
weekly market held every Friday on a place in the north-west 
side of the city. This is called Zoma (Friday), from the day on 
which it is held, and although a large daily market is also held 
there, on Fridays an immense concourse of people from the 
surrounding country, as well as from the city itself, is gathered 
together. All the chief roads are thronged with people bringing 
in their goods for sale, and by an early hour in the forenoon 
probably 10,000 or 12,000 persons are assembled, and the hum 
of voices can be heard from a considerable distance. Here 
everything that is grown or manufactured in the interior 
province can be procured, and in no place can a better idea of 
the productions of the country or of the handicraft skill of the 
Malagasy be obtained than in this great Zoma market. There 
is, of course, a rough division of the various objects for sale in 
different sections of the market-ground. Here is a forest of 
timber, rafters, joists, and boards ; here are doors, bedsteads, 
and chairs ; here are enormous piles of herana rush for roofing 
and long dry grass for fuel ; here is the grain, fruit, and vegetable 
division of the market, with heaps of salt and chillies for condi- 
ments ; here is the cattle market, and not far off the beef and 
mutton, and the poultry section, with hundreds of fowls, ducks, 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 43 

turkeys, and geese ; here is the " dry goods " division, with 
English calicoes, American sheeting, gay prints, and native 
cloths of hemp, cotton, and rofia fibre ; here are piles of snowy 
cocoons of raw silk for weaving into fine lamba ; here is iron- 
work of all kinds, nails and hinges, bolts and screws ; and here 
is native pottery, water-jars, and cooking-pots, and so on. The 
Zoma market is certainly one of the most interesting sights of 
Antananarivo, and is without doubt one of the chief delights of 
life to the native residents in the capital. 

To Europeans there is a great absence in Antananarivo of 
anything like entertainments or amusements. A French gentle- 
man, newly arrived in the city, truly observed : " // fiy a pas des 
distractions ici ! " And doubtless he felt the want of the cafe and 
theatre and boulevarde of his beloved Paris. Probably the 
Malagasy themselves do not feel this need, and are sufficiently 
amused and entertained by the mild excitement of their New 
Year's festival, by an occasional kabctry or public assembly, by 
the return of the queen from a visit to some other part of the 
country, with the state and ceremony attending it, by a review 
of troops, and perhaps still more by the frequent markets and 
their gossip, together with the delights of bargaining and seeing 
others buy and sell. Of late years these purely native amuse- 
ments have been added to by the introduction of occasional 
lectures, concerts, and other entertainments, chiefly held in the 
educational buildings or the different missions ; the school 
children also often have their "treats," when they sport their 
gayest dresses and are feasted in some garden or mango 
orchard in the suburbs of the city ; and it may be added that 
the Lbhavolana, or service held at one of the larger Antanana- 
rivo churches in rotation on the first Monday morning of every 
month, is also a time of great enjoyment to the younger people 
from the new sacred music introduced on many of these occa- 
sions. 

On referring to the map it will be seen that there are in 
Antananarivo and its suburbs, no fewer than thirty-five churches, 



; 



44 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

twenty-seven of which are connected with the London Mis- 
sionary Society. And when the population ^ of the capital is 
remembered — probably from 80,000 to 100,000 — it will be 
evident that these thirty-five churches provide by no means 
too large an accommodation for those who should attend public 
worship, indeed it is still greatly inadequate to the needs of the 
city. 

It will be noticed that little attempt has been made in the 
map to show the remarkably irregular and very picturesque site 
of Antananarivo, as this would have interfered with its main 
purpose. This has been already sufficiently described in the 
earlier portion of the chapter. 

The first building erected for Christian worship in Antanana- 
rivo was at Ambodin' Andohalo, on the spot where the London 
Missionary Society Girls' Central School stood until very lately 
(see map). For some time the school-house adjoining Mr. 
Griffiths' residence on this site appears to have been used for 
worship, and this continued for several years to be the sole place 
of meeting. In 1 831, however, as the number of worshippers 
increased, a second building was erected at Ambatonakanga (i) ^ ; 
and, as the first site at Andohalo was not, in this later period of 
the Mission, used again for worship, the congregation meeting 
in the Memorial Church there may be justly regarded as the 
" mother church " of Madagascar. Ambatonakanga is certainly 
the most interesting spot in the island as regards its religious 
history. It is a commanding position at the junction of the two 
chief roads in the city — it might almost be said in the island — 
and the site was originally granted for a workshop to the L.M.S. 
On this spot the first printing-press was erected and set to work ; 
subsequently the second place in the country ever erected for 
Christian worship was built here ; on the outbreak of persecution 
this building was turned into a stable and afterwards into a 

^ The population of Antananarivo has recently been ascertained — March, 1896 
— ^not to exceed 43,000 souls. — Ed. 

= The numbers following the names of churches are those by which they are 
marked on the map and in the list at the end of this chapter. 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 45 

prison for the punishment of the " praying people " ; and finally, 
the first of the four Martyr Memorial Churches was commenced 
here in 1864 and opened in 1867. This is a substantial stone 
structure with tower and spire, built in a simple Norman style, 
the first stone building ever erected in the country. 

When Mr. Ellis arrived in Antananarivo in June, 1862, soon 
after the country was re-opened to Christian effort, he found three 
large congregations already gathered together, and all meeting 
in the same quarter of the city, the north-west — one at Amba- 
tonakanga ; another at Analakely (2) ; and the third at Ampa- 
ribe (3). These congregations met in very rough and unattractive 
buildings — one being an old stable ; another several native houses 
patched together ; and the other an old workshop. For many 
years past, however, these congregations have been housed in 
large buildings ; and these three still continue in the front 
rank as regards numbers and influence, Amparibe probably 
containing the largest congregation to be seen in any part of 
the island. During the twelve years or so following the year 
1862 numerous offshoots sprang from the three just named, 
until the city churches reached the number shown on the map. 
Ten of these are reni-fiangonana (" mother churches "), having 
large districts connected with each, which stretch for many miles 
in all directions, and contain in all no fewer than six hundi^ed 
congregations. The largest of these districts includes 120 
churches and is worked most efficiently by the Friends' Mission, 
in complete harmony with the London Missionary Society, and 
has its mother church at Amb6hitantely (8). 

Of these ten, four are the Memorial Churches at Ambatona- 
kanga (i), Ambohipotsy (2), Ampamarinana (6), and Faravo- 
hitra (9). The first of these has already been described. The 
second occupies a most commanding position at the southern 
extremity of the city ridge, and is visible for many miles in 
every direction. It is built in a simple Early English style of 
Gothic, and has a tower and spire. Ambohipotsy is the St. 
Albans of Madagascar, for it is the spot where the heroic 



46 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Rasalama, the first Christian martyr, was speared in the year 
1837. The third church is built on the edge of the " precipice of 
hurHng," as its name signifies, and commemorates thirteen brave 
confessors who were, in 1849, dashed down the steep cliffs for 
refusing to^ deny their Saviour. The building is designed in 
a simple Romanesque style, and has a lofty campanile ; the 
interior, with its galleries all round, looking very much like an 
English Nonconformist chapel. The fourth of these Martyr 
.Memorial buildings occupies a very prominent position at the 
northern end of the city ridge. Faravohitra Church is a very 
plain stone structure, with low square tower, and marks the 
exact spot where, in 1849, four Christian Malagasy were burnt 
to death, together with the mangled remains of those thirteen 
who had been hurled over the precipices at Ampamarinana on 
the same day. 

The Queen's Church in the palace courtyard is attended by 
Her Majesty and her Court, as well as by many of the chief 
people of the city. The congregation here gives liberally towards 
the support of native evangelists and teachers in the different 
districts, and it is distinctly a Congregational church. The other 
churches in the city and suburbs are mostly of sun-dried brick 
and stone, but some of the more recently-erected ones are of 
burnt brick, and are handsome buildings. On Sunday mornings 
they are all well filled, especially on the first Sunday in the 
month, the congregations numbering in several instances over 
a thousand people. The afternoon congregations are not quite 
so large. Some of the surburban churches are just as largely 
attended as those in the city proper. 

The observance of Sunday is a marked feature in the life 
of Antananarivo. No markets are held, all Government business 
is stopped, and large numbers of people in clean white dresses 
and lamba crowd the roads going to and from the various places 
of worship. The sound of bells is heard from many towers, and 
as one passes by the churches, the familiar strains of many well- 
known English tunes may be heard sung accompanied by the 



I 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 4/ 

notes of American organs or harmoniums. A Sabbath quiet 
and calm is over the whole city ; not only is divine worship 
attended by thousands, but hundreds of children are learning 
in Sunday schools ; and it may be said that in Antananarivo, 
as well as in many other Madagascar towns and villages, the 
Day of Rest is as well observed as in most parts of England, 
or even of Scotland. 

In addition to the churches of Antananarivo, other institu- 
tions connected with the London Missionary Society and the 
Friends' and other Missions are also shown on the map. Of 
these, the largest building, and one seen most prominently on 
approaching the capital from Tamatave, is the L.M.S. College, 
a massive and substantial structure of brick and stone. The 
College teaching was commenced in 1869, and the present 
building was opened in 1881. The accommodation includes, 
besides spacious class-rooms and tutors' residences, a lecture hall, 
arranged in theatre fashion, where lectures are delivered and 
meetings of all kinds are constantly held, there being room 
for about five hundred auditors. About seventy to eighty 
students of different grades are usually under training, the 
majority of these being educated for the Christian ministry, 
while some are secular students. 

A little below the College, to the north, is the L.M.S. Normal 
School, also housed in a substantial stone and brick building ; 
and here teachers for the town and country schools receive a 
thorough course of instruction for their work. The Girls' Central 
School is in Ambodin' Andohalo, nearer the centre of the city. 
Not far from this is the L.M.S. Press, from which a large 
number of books and other publications are constantly being 
issued.^ 

Lower down, to the north-west, at Analakely is the Dispen- 
sary, under the management of a joint committee of the London 
Missionary Society and Friends' Missions. Within the last four 
or five years a new, larger, and very complete Hospital has been 
^ About 150,000 books of various kinds yearly. 



48 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

erected at Isoavinandriana, a place about a mile from the 
northern extremity of the capital. This is also under the joint 
control of the two societies, although the Friends take the larger 
share of the expenses of all medical work. Here the sick are 
nursed and attended to ; and young men are trained as doctors 
and surgeons, and women for the work of nursing and mid- 
wifery. A Medical Mission Board gives diplomas of efficiency 
in surgery and medicine, and a considerable number of young 
Malagasy are now qualified medical practitioners. 

The Friends' Mission Central Girls' School and their press 
are on the Faravohitra hill close to the College ; and their 
excellent upper Boys' School is at Ambohijatovo, nearer the 
centre of the city. So close is the connection between the two 
Missions, that for all practical purposes they may be regarded 
as one ; all plans of work, church government, and worship 
being the same in almost every respect in the churches of the 
London Missionary Society and those in charge of the Friends. 

A word or two must also be said about the other churches 
of Antananarivo. 

Those of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel" 
Episcopal Mission are four in number, the chief being the stately 
stone Cathedral, which occupies a most commanding position 
on the north side of Andohalo in the centre of the city. This 
is a cruciform structure with three towers, which will eventually 
be crowned with spires. This Mission has also good High 
Schools for boys and girls in the city, while their college, with 
some elegant stone buildings, is situated about twelve miles to 
the north. 

The Norwegian Lutheran Mission has a representative church 
in Antananarivo, as well as a training institution, orphanage, 
schools, and hospital. Its chief work is south of Imerina and 
in the Betsileo province, where there are a large number of 
stations. 

The Roman Catholic Jesuit Mission has four churches in the 
capital. Of these, the largest one, or cathedral, close to Ando- 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 49 

halo, is a handsome stone structure with towers crowned by- 
octagonal lanterns. There are also large buildings as residences 
for priests, lay brothers, and sisters of mercy, and for schools 
and press.i 

It will be seen from the above sketch that Antananarivo is 
the centre of a large amount of Christian work and activity. 
Its twenty-seven L.M.S. town and suburban churches and 
schools, although they all have their own native pastors and 
preachers, still, however, need the help and guidance and teaching 
of English missionaries ; and for a long time to come its college, 
schools, presses, hospitals, &c., will require the same oversight. 
And when it is remembered that, in addition to the above 
churches and their large districts, there are also five out-stations 
of the L.M.S. at a few miles' distance from the capital, with about 
three hundred more congregations, it is evident that English 
missionaries in the central province of Madagascar have unusual 
opportunities of service for Christ. The greater part of all 
these nine hundred congregations have only come out of 
heathenism within the last twenty-five years, and numbers of 
the people are still (can we wonder at it?) very ignorant and 
superstitious. The claims of the still completely heathen 
districts of Madagascar are, it is true, very urgent ; but while 
more ought to be done for these, we cannot afford at present 
a single man from the wide field close to our hands and open 
to our teaching with hardly any external hindrance. It may 
safely be said that in no other part of the world are there such 
favourable opportunities of service for our Master. In almost 
every other mission-field the people have with difficulty to be 
drawn out of heathenism to hear the sound of the Gospel ; here 
they are already gathered into hundreds of congregations, their 
idols destroyed, and are willing to listen to the Word of Life. 

^ A new French Protestant Church has been estabUshed (1896), under the 
auspices of the French Resident-General, M. Hippolyte Laroche, at Ambatona- 
kanga, where services are conducted by the Pasteurs, MM, Logat and Kruger. 
—Ed. 



50 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

In concluding this description of Antananarivo it will be 
evident from what has been said that this capital of the Hova 
Malagasy is no mere collection of huts, nor is it like a Kaffir 
kraal, but is gradually becoming a respectable city ; and it is 
only fair to add that the advances in civilisation, enlightenment, 
and intelligence, which are so manifest in the capital, and 
also, in fair proportion, in other towns throughout the central 
provinces, are the direct results of the labour of Christian 
missionaries, chiefly those of the London Missionary Society. 
This society, more than sixty years ago, sent to Madagascar 
artisan missionaries, as well as those whose work was more 
directly educational and religious ; and to their united efforts 
the Malagasy chiefly owe the material progress they have 
already made, as well as the Christian teaching which has 
broken down the old idolatry of the people, which has covered 
the central provinces with hundreds of churches, which is teaching 
a hundred thousand children in its schools, and is gradually 
raising up a formerly ignorant and semi-barbarous tribe to the 
position of an enlightened and Christian people. 

The population of Antananarivo is difficult to estimate 
exactly. No census appears to have been taken by the native 
Government, but the houses have been counted by some of my 
friends, and careful inquiries made as to the average number of 
occupants, and from these it is believed by some that the popu- 
lation of the city is much over 100,000. I should be inclined to 
put it at from 60,000 to 70,000.^ There is frequently a large 
number of strangers in the capital, as people come constantly 
from all parts of the island on Government business, bringing 
tribute, and receiving orders from the Sovereign ; and on special 
occasions, as when levies of troops are being made, &c., the 
ordinary population of the city must be swelled by many 
thousands. 

Many years ago, during the time of the early mission of the 
London Missionary Society, a plan of Antananarivo was made 
^ Vide ante, p. 44. Population is only 43,000. — Ed. 



ANTANANARIVO, THE CAPITAL. 



51 



by Mr. Cameron (whose name has already been mentioned in 
this chapter), and was published in Ellis's History of Mada- 
gascar (1838). The city has of course greatly increased since 
then ; and within the last six or seven years a new detailed 
plan to a large scale has been made from surveys by French 
officers. 

Antananarivo may justly be considered the heart of Mada- 
gascar. There is the seat of government and of the most 
advanced civilisation of the country ; from it go out the Hova 
officers and soldiers who garrison every port on the coast and 
every important town in the interior ; from it go out weekly 
thousands of books and copies of the Sacred Scriptures ; and 
there are trained the native doctors and surgeons and nurses, 
the schoolmasters and evangelists and teachers, who are sent to 
distant places to labour together with their European teachers in 
various ways to benefit their fellow-countrymen, and to hasten 
that day when, as we hope, the whole of Madagascar shall share 
in the advance and enlightenment which is already so marked 
in the central province of Imerina and in the capital city,, 
Antananarivo. 

INDEX TO NUMBERS ON MAP. 



Palace Church 

1. Ambatonakanga 

2. Analakely ... 

3. Amparibe ... 

4. Ambohipotsy 

5. Ankadibevava 

6. Ampamarinana 

7. Andohalo ... 

8. Ambohitantely 

9. Faravohitra 

10. Imahamasina 

11. Isotry 

12. Ambanidia 



Commenced. 
1869 

ri83i 

li86i 
1861 
1861 
1863 
1863 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1868 
1867 
1867 
1868 





Commenced. 


13. Ambatomitsangana 


1863 


14. Fiadanana, E. 


1867 


15. Fiadanana, W. ... 


1872 


16. Isoanierana 


1867 


17. Ankadimbahoaka... 


... 1865 


18. Androndra 


1867 


19. Mahazoarivo 


... 1863 


20. Ambohimiandra ... 


... 1863 


21. Andraisoro 


1866 


22. Ambatoroka 


1869 


23. Ankadifotsy 


1868 


24. Tanimena 


1869 


25. Anjanahary 


1869 


26. Manjakaray 


i86l 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR : NOTES 
ON THE CLIMATE, AGRICULTURE, SOCIAL CUSTOMS OF 
THE PEOPLE, AND VARIED ASPECTS OF THE MONTHS. 

The seasons in Madagascar — Their significant names — Prospect from summit of 
Antananarivo — The great rice-plain — Springtime : September and October — 
Rice-planting and rice-fields — First crop — Trees and foliage — " Burning the 
Downs " — Birds — Summer : November to February — Thunderstorms and 
tropical rains — Effects on roads — Rainfall — Hai'l — Magnificent lightning 
effects — Malagasy New Year — Native calendar — Royal bathing — Conspicuous 
flowers — Aloes and agaves — Christmas Day observances — Uniformity in 
length of days — Native words and phrases for divisions of time — And for 
natural phenomena — Effects of heavy rains — Wild flowers of Imerina — 
Autumn : March and April — Rice harvest — Harvest Thanksgiving Services — 
Mist effects on winter mornings — Spiders' webs — Winter : May to August — 
Winter the dry season — Great markets — Aspects of nightly sky — Epidemics 
in cold season — Vegetation. 

MY object in this chapter is to describe the varied aspects 
of the different months throughout the year in this 
central province of Imerina, as they present themselves to 
any one who lives in the capital city of Antananarivo, and is 
frequently travelling in the country around it. I want to show 
the variety of Nature during the changing seasons, as the result 
of the heat or cold, and of the moisture or drought of the 
climate, and to point out the changes resulting from the 
different processes of agriculture carried on by the Malagasy. 
And it must be remembered that although this central province 
of Madagascar is by several degrees well within the tropics, our 
climate for some months of the year is by no means the 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 53 

" tropical " one supposed in our ordinary English use of that 
word. On these interior highlands, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet 
above the sea level, the south-easterly winds blow from June to 
August with a keenness and force which it needs thick clothing 
to withstand, and makes a wood fire during the long evenings 
a very pleasant addition to the comforts of home life. 

The seasons in the central regions of the island are practi- 
cally only two : the hot and rainy period, from the beginning of 
November to the end of April ; and the cool and dry period, 
during the other months, from May to October. The Malagasy 
are, however, accustomed to speak of four seasons of their year, 
viz., the Lohataona, i.e.y " head of the year," during September 
and October, when the planting of rice is going on everywhere, 
and a few showers give promise of the coming rains ; the 
Fahavaratra^ i.e., " thunder-time," when severe storms of thunder 
and lightning are frequent, with heavy downpours of rain, from 
the early part of November to the end of February or into 
March ; the Fdrardno, i.e.^ " last rains," from the beginning of 
March and through April ; and lastly, the Ririnina, i.e.^ " time 
of bareness," when the grass becomes dry and withered, from 
June to August. 

Taking, therefore, the seasons in order, from the beginning, 
not of January, which gives no natural division of the year, but 
from the early part of September, when the blossoms on the 
trees speak of the " good time coming " of renewed verdure, I 
shall note down, in their succession, the varying aspects of the 
country, in climate, vegetation, and culture of the soil, through- 
out " the changing year." 

Before, however, proceeding to do this, it may give greater 
distinctness to the mental picture I want to draw for those who 
have never been in Madagascar, if I try to describe in a few 
words the appearance of this central province of the island, 
especially of that portion of it which is in the neighbourhood of 
the capital. Let us go up to the highest point of the long 
rocky ridge on and around which Antananarivo is built, from 



54 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

which we can " view the landscape o'er," and try and gain a 
clear notion of this "heart of Imerina," as it is often called by 
the Malagasy. The city hill reaches its greatest elevation at a 
point called Ambohimitsimbina, i.e.^ " Hill of regarding," which 
is 700 feet above the general level of the rice-plains around it. 
From this " coign of vantage " there is of course a very extensive 
view in every direction, and we see at once that the surrounding 
country is very mountainous. East and south there is little but 
hills of all shapes and sizes to be seen, except along the valleys 
of the river Ikopa and its tributaries, which come from the edge 
of the upper forest, thirty miles or so away to the east. To the 
north the country is more undulating, but at ten or twelve miles 
away high hills and moors close in the view. Some of the hills 
rise into mountains, as in the case of Angavokely to the east, 
Milangana, Andringitra, and Lohavohitra to the north and 
north-west, and Iharanandriana to the south. The country is 
everywhere in these directions, except in the river valleys, 
covered with red soil, through which the granite and gneiss 
foundations protrude at almost every elevated point in huge 
boulder-like rocks. 

There is little foliage to be seen, except on the top of some 
of the hills, where the ancient towns and villages were built, 
and in such places a circle of old Aviavy trees, with an occa- 
sional Ambntana ^ tree, gives a pleasant relief to the prevailing 
red and ochre tints of the bare hills. The largest mass of green is 
at the old capital, Ambohimanga, eleven miles away to the north, 
where the steep sides of the hill are still covered with a remnant 
of the original forest, which formerly was doubtless much more 
extensive in this part of Imerina. 

To the west, from north to south, the prospect differs con- 
siderably from that to the east. To the south-west there rises 
by very gradual slopes, at some thirty-five miles' distance, the 
mass of Ankaratra, the highest point in the island, its three or 
four crowning peaks reaching an elevation of nearly 9,000 feet 
^ ¥icus BaroJii, Baker, and Ficus trichosphcera, Baker. 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 55 

above the sea, and something more than half that height above 
the general level of the country. Due west and north-west is a 
considerable extent of level country, beyond which the mountain 
of Ambohimiangara, sixty miles away, is seen on the horizon, 
as well as many other hills. In the foreground, stretching away 
many miles, is the great rice-plain of Betsimitatatra, from which 
numbers of low red hills, most of them with villages, rise like 
islands out of a green sea when the rice is growing ; along the 
plain the river Ikopa can be seen, winding its way north-west- 
wards to join the Betsiboka ; the united streams, with many 
tributaries, flowing into the sea at the Bay of Bembatoka. This 
great plain, " the granary of Antananarivo," was formerly an 
immense marsh, and earlier still a lake ; but since the embank- 
ing of the river by some of the early kings of Imerina, it has 
become the finest rice-plain in the island, and, with its con- 
nected valleys, furnishes the bulk of the food of the people of 
the central province. 

From this elevated point at least a hundred small towns and 
villages can be recognised, many of them marked by the tiled 
roof of the village church, which shines out distinctly in the 
sunshine amid the brown thatched roofs of most of the houses, 
and can be easily distinguished at distances of ten or twelve 
miles away. This view from the summit of the capital is 
certainly in its way unrivalled for variety and extent, as well as 
for the human interest of its different parts, as shown by the 
large population, the great area of cultivated land, the embanked 
rivers, and the streams and water-channels for irrigation seen in 
every direction. 

Springtime : September and October. — With the early 
days of September we may usually say that springtime in 
Imerina fairly sets in, and that the year in its natural aspects 
properly commences. By a true instinct, arising doubtless from 
long observation of the change of the seasons, the Malagasy call 
this time Lohataona^ i.e., " the head, or beginning, of the year," 
when nature seems to awake from the comparative deadness of 



56 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the cold and dry winter months, during which the country has 
looked bare and uninviting, but now begins again to give 
promise of fertility and verdure. The keen cold winds and 
drizzly showers of the past few weeks give place to warmer air 
and clearer skies, and although usually there is but little rain 
during September, the deciduous trees begin to put forth their 
leaves, and flower-buds appear as heralds of the fuller dis- 
play of vegetable life which will be seen after the rains have 
fallen. 

The great rice-plain to the west looks, during the early days 
of the Lbhataona^ bare and brown ; but we shall see that in various 
places, where the plain borders the low rising grounds on which 
the villages are built, there are bright patches of vivid green. 
These are the ketsa grounds, or smaller rice-fields, where the 
rice is first sown thick and broadcast, and where it grows for a 
month or two before being planted out in the larger fields. 
These ketsa patches begin to be very numerous also in the 
smaller valleys which are found in every part of the province ; 
and as soon as the young plants are 4 or 5 inches high 
they are frequently strewn over with long dry grass to protect 
them from the hot sun by day as well as from the cold winds by 
night. In other rice-patches large fronds of bracken fern are 
used for the same purpose, and small branches of trees are also 
stuck along the edges of the enclosures, which are divided from 
each other by a low bank of earth, a few inches broad and only 
a foot or two in height. 

As the season advances the people begin to be busy digging 
up their rice-fields, the clods being piled up in heaps and rows 
in order to give the soil the benefit of exposure to the sun and 
air. All this work is done by the native long-handled and long- 
and narrow-bladed spade, driven into the ground by the w^eight 
of the handle, as the Malagasy wear no shoes, and so could not 
drive down the spade by the foot in European fashion, while the 
plough is still an unknown implement to them. The water- 
courses, by which water is brought to every rice-plot, are now 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. S7 

being repaired in all directions. The chief supply of water is 
from the springs found at the head of almost every valley, which 
is carefully led by channels cut and embanked round the curves 
of the hillsides, being often taken thus for a considerable distance 
from its source. Eventually this little canal resolves itself into 
a small stream traversing the valley, from which smaller channels 
convey the water to every field, so as to moisten the clods after 
they have been dug over. 

The water-supply for the great Betsimitatatra plain is derived 
from the Ikopa river and its tributaries the Andromba, the 
Sisaony, the Mamba, and other streams. Canals tap these rivers 
at various points, in order to irrigate the fields at lower levels 
further down their course. A large quantity of water is thus 
diverted from the rivers during September and October, so that 
the smaller streams are almost dry, and even the Ikopa and its 
affluents, good-sized rivers at other times of the year, then 
become shallow and easily fordable. 

Before the end of October a large extent of the great plain, 
especially to the north and north-west, is completely planted 
with rice ; and a green level, looking like one vast lawn, 
stretches away for many miles in this direction, without any 
break or visible divisions. This green is the vary aloha, or 
" former rice," the first crop, which will become ripe in the month 
of January, or early \xk February. Smaller expanses of bright 
green appear in other directions also, especially along the courses 
of the rivers, but a considerable extent of the plain directly to 
the west of the capital is still russet brown in colour, and will 
not be planted until a month or two later. From this will come 
the later rice crop, or, as it is called, the {vary) vaky ambiaty, 
which is planted in November or December, and becomes fit for 
cutting about April. This latter crop is so called because the 
flowering of the Ambiaty shrub,^ about November, gives notice 
\ to the people that planting-time has come. This shrub is very 
conspicuous about this time of the year from its masses of white 
flowers. 

* Vernonia appendiaUata, Less. 



58 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The ketsa grounds are covered before sowing with a layer 
of wood and straw ashes, so that they have quite a black 
appearance. Before this, however, the clods have been broken 
up and worked by the spade into a soft mud, with an inch or 
two of water over all, and on this the grain is sown broadcast, 
springing up in two or three weeks' time and looking like a 
brilliant emerald carpet. 

There are usually a few heavy showers about the end of 
September or the early part of October, which are called rdno- 
norana mampisara-taona^ i.e., " rain dividing the year " ; but 
occasionally no rain falls until the rainy season regularly com- 
mences, so it is dry and dusty everywhere, the ground cracks, 
and everything seems thirsting for moisture. The heat increases 
as the sun gets more nearly vertical with the advancing season, 
although the nights are pleasantly cool. Yet notwithstanding 
the dry soil, the trees are beginning to blossom. Most con- 
spicuous among them is the Cape-lilac,^ a tree introduced from 
South Africa about seventy years ago by the first L.M.S. 
missionaries, and now thoroughly naturalised. It grows to be 
a good-sized tree, and many hundreds of them are to be seen 
in all the suburbs of Antananarivo, making them gay with the 
profusion of lilac flowers which cover the trees, and fragrant 
with their strong perfume. 

There are many large orchards in Imerina, thickly planted 
with mango-trees, and about this time the green of the leaves 
is largely mingled with a tinting of reddish brown, which is 
caused by the masses of flowers in the upper part of the trees. 
The low banks of earth which form the boundary walls of 
plantations are largely planted with a species of Euphorbia,^ of 
which there are two varieties — one with brilliant scarlet bracts, 
and the other of pale yellow tint, the leaves appearing on the 
prickly stems later on. 

As the season advances, the people burn the grass over the 
hillsides and the open moor country, so as to get rid of the 
^ Mclia Azcderach, L. ^ Euphorbia splendetis, Bojer. 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 59 

long dry grass and to obtain a crop of green herbage as soon 
as the rains have fallen plentifully. This has an unpleasant 
appearance by day, from the immense black patches of charred 
vegetation to be seen in every direction ; and frequently the 
hedges and smaller trees are destroyed as well. There can be 
no doubt that to this practice of mandoro tanety (" burning the 
down "), as it is called, is largely attributable the bare and 
treeless appearance of the central provinces. The young trees 
which would spring up, especially in the hollows and sheltered 
places, have no chance against the yearly fires which sweep over 
the country, and the little vegetation which has held its own is 
constantly liable to be lessened as time goes on. Sometimes a 
dozen fires, long curving lines of flame, may be seen at night 
in different directions ; and a ruddy glow in the sky often shows 
the places where the actual fire is hidden from view by inter- 
vening hills. Mandoro tanety thus gives a strangely picturesque 
appearance to the nights of springtime in Imerina. 

The weather often gets very hot and sultry before the rains 
come on, indeed the heat is greater and more trying at this 
time than in the summer itself, when the frequent storms freshen 
the air, and the rain cools the earth. The clear skies and pure 
atmosphere of other months are exchanged for thick, oppressive 
days, when the distant hills disappear altogether, and the nearer 
ones seem quite distant in the dense haze. These atmospheric 
conditions are probably due to the grass-burning just described, 
and also to the frequent burning of the forest away to the east. 
As the weather gets warmer, a few birds come up from the 
wooded regions of the island, and wherever there is a small 
patch of wood, the oft-repeated cry of the Kankdfotra, the 
Madagascar Cuckoo, may be heard, much resembling the 
syllables ^' kow-kow, kow-kow-koo." The querulous cry of the 
noisy little Hltsikltsika, or Kestrel, is heard continually, for he 
^j' and his mate are now bringing up their young brood and busily 
seeking food for them. As we walk over the downs, the 
Sorbhitra^ the native Lark, darts up from her nest on the bare 



6o MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

ground, with a note somewhat like that of her European cousin's, 
but not so full and sweet. 

As the end of October draws near, the people are busily at 
work, not only in the rice-fields, but also repairing their houses, 
mending their grass or rush roofs, and hurrying on their sun- 
dried brick or clay building before the heavy rains fall. Although 
a large number of burnt-brick houses, with tiled roofs, have now 
been erected, the majority of native dwellings are still of the 
cheaper materials ; and everything of the kind must be finished, 
or at least well protected from the weather, before the rainy 
season comes on. The watercourses, too, need attention, and 
the river banks must be repaired, lest a succession of heavy 
rains should swell the streams, break through the embankments, 
and flood the rice-plains. 

Summer: November, December, January, and Feb- 
ruary. — Summer is not only the hot season, but it is also the 
rainy season, very little rain falling at any other time of the 
year. It is accordingly called by the Malagasy Fahavaratra^ 
i.e., " thunder-time," since almost all heavy rain is accompanied 
by a thunderstorm ; and taking the average of a good many 
years, this season may be said to commence at the beginning of 
November. 

As the sun gets every day more nearly vertical at noon, on 
his passage towards the southern tropic, the heat increases, and 
the electric tension of the air becomes more oppressive. For a 
week or more previous to the actual commencement of the rains, 
the clouds gather towards evening, and the heavens are lighted 
up at night by constant flashes of lightning. But at length, 
after a few days of this sultry weather, towards mid-day the 
huge cumuli gather thickly over the sky and gradually unite 
into a dense mass, purple black in colour, and soon the thunder 
is heard. It rapidly approaches nearer and nearer, the clouds 
touching the lower hills, then down darts the forked lightning, 
followed by the roar of the thunder, and presently a wild rush 
of wind, as if it came from all quarters at once, tells us that the 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 6 1 

storm is upon us, and then comes the rain in big, heavy drops 
for a few seconds and soon in torrents, as if the sluice-gates of 
the clouds were opened. The lightning is almost incessant, and 
for half an hour or so there is often hardly any interval between 
the crashing and reverberations of the thunder peals, the hills 
around the capital echoing back the roar from the clouds. 
Certainly a heavy thunderstorm in Madagascar is not without 
a considerable element of danger, especially for any one caught 
in a storm in the open, or in a house unprotected by a lightning- 
conductor. Every house of any pretensions in the central 
provinces has this safeguard, for every year many people are 
killed by lightning — some while walking in the road, and others 
in houses unprotected by a conductor ; for instance, one of our 
college students, travelling with wife and children to the 
Betsileo, was killed instantaneously, as well as a slave near him, 
when sitting in a native house, while a child he was nursing at 
the time escaped with a few burns only. 

A large quantity of rain sometimes falls during such storms 
in a very short time. On the 19th of January, 1892, 3 J inches 
fell in less than half an hour ; and as the streets and paths 
through the capital are all very steep, and from the rocky 
nature of the whole hill there can be no underground drainage, 
it may be imagined what a roar of water there is all over the 
city after such a storm. The three or four chief thoroughfares 
are transformed into the beds of rushing torrents and series of 
cascades, and it is no wonder that most of the highways of the 
capital get deeper and deeper every year. Even where there 
is an attempt at a rough paving, a single storm will often tear 
it up and pile the stones together in a big hole, with no more 
order than obtains in the bed of a cataract. After the rains are 
over, the red soil is dug away from the sides to fill up the 
channel cut by the torrent, and so the road gradually sinks 
below the walls of the compounds on either side of it. 

Taking the average of eleven years (i 881 -1890), the annual 
rainfall of Antananarivo was 52 inches ; and of this, omitting 



62 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

decimals, 5J inches fell in October, 5f inches in November, loj 
inches in December, 1 1 inches in January, 9 inches in February, 
8 inches in March, and 2 inches in April ; so that December 
and January are the wettest months, during which rain falls 
usually on two days out of every three. 

It is very unusual for thunderstorms to occur in the morning, 
they mostly come on in the afternoon ; and after the first heavy 
downpour, a steady rain will often continue for three or four 
hours, and occasionally far into the night. It is generally bright 
and fine in the early morning ; all vegetation is refreshed by 
the plentiful moisture ; and the people are busy in their planta- 
tions on the sloping hillsides, digging up the softened earth for 
planting manioc, sweet potatoes, the edible arum, and many 
other vegetables. 

Hail also very frequently falls during these thunderstorms, 
and should it be late in the season, when the rice is in ear, great 
damage is often done to the growing crop. A large extent of 
rice-field will sometimes be stripped of every grain, the stalks 
standing up like bare sticks. Charms against hail had therefore 
in the old heathen times a prominent place in the popular 
beliefs and, there can be little doubt, are still trusted in and 
used by many of the more ignorant people. Occasionally the 
hailstones are of very large size and kill sheep and small 
animals, if they are left unsheltered. I remember a storm of 
this kind (Oct. 22, 1887), when the hailstones were as large as 
good-sized nuts, while some were cushion-shaped and hexagonal 
with a hollow in the centre, and nearly ij inches in diameter. 
In other cases they have been seen as jagged lumps of ice ; and 
it may be easily imagined that it is very unpleasant and some- 
what dangerous to be exposed to such a fusilade. 

Besides the thunderstorms like those just described, which 
come so close and are often so awful in their results, there is 
another kind of storm we frequently see in the rainy season 
which is an unmixed source of delight. This is when, for two 
or three hours together in the evening, a large portion of the 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 63 

sky is lighted up by an almost incessant shimmer of lightning. 
All the time no thunder is heard from this celestial display, but 
it is most fascinating to watch the infinitely varied effects of 
light and darkness. 

As the Malagasy New Year's Day now comes in the month 
of November, it may be fitting to say something here about the 
native division of time. The Malagasy months are lunar ones 
and therefore their year, reckoning by the months, is eleven 
days shorter than our own, the first day of their year coming 
consequently at different times, from the first to the twelfth 
month, until the cycle is complete. When I first came to 
Madagascar (in 1863), the Malagasy New Year's Day, that is, 
the first of Alahamady, was in the month of March, and in this 
year, 1 894, the first of that Malagasy month fell on the 6th of 
April, the cycle of thirty-three years being thus nearly finished. 
But since the accession of the present Sovereign, Queen Rana- 
valona III., in 1883, the 22nd of November, which is her 
Majesty's birthday, has been fixed as the invariable New Year's 
Day ; and most of the old ceremonies always observed previous 
to the year 1883 on the first day of the first month (Alahamady) 
are now kept up on the eve of November 22nd. The old New 
Year's Day, the birthday of the father of Radama I., is still, 
however, held in remembrance by the firing of cannon on the 
first of Alahamady. The Malagasy appear never to have 
made any attempt, by the insertion of intercalary days or any 
other contrivance, to fill up their shorter year to the true time 
occupied in the earth's annual revolution round the sun ; for of 
course they must have noticed that their months came at quite 
different periods after a very few years. The names of the 
Malagasy months in use in the central province and in most 
other parts of the island are all Arabic in origin, as indeed are 
the names of the days of the week. In some districts, however, 
other names are employed, which mostly appear to be purely 
Malagasy words. It may be noticed here that the Malagasy 
month-names are not the Arabic names for the months, but are 



64 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the Arabic words for the twelve constellations of the Zodiac. 
Thus, Alahamady is the Ram, Adaoro is the Bull {daoro-=taurus\ 
Adizaoza is the Twins, and so on. This appears to have arisen 
from the connection between astrology and the divination {sikldy) 
introduced by the Arabs several centuries ago. 

A full account of the Fandroana or " Bathing," as the New 
Year's festival is called, cannot be given here, as a complete 
description would form a separate chapter of some length. It 
must suffice to say that although some of the ancient customs 
have fallen and are still falling into disuse, most of them are 
still kept up. The most prominent of these are the following : — 
(i) The lighting of little bundles of dried grass at dusk on the 
evenings of the 20th and the 21st of November, the latter, the 
eve of the 22nd, being considered as the commencement of the 
New Year's Day itself, for the Malagasy, like other Orientals, 
reckon " the evening and the morning " as the proper order of 
the day. These fires, possibly a relic of the old fire-worship, 
are called harendrina^ and form one of the most pleasing features 
of the festival in the gathering darkness of the evening. (2) 
The ceremonial Royal Bathing at the great Palace, when all 
the principal people of the kingdom are present, as well as 
representative foreigners, is perhaps the most prominent of all 
the ceremonies, giving, as it does, the name to the whole festival. 
This is followed by a ceremonial bathing, or at least sprinkling 
of water, by all households. (3) On the following day comes 
the killing of oxen, doubtless the most important of all Fan- 
droana observances in the estimation of the people generally, at 
any rate of the poorer classes, who then get, for once a year at 
least, a plentiful supply of beef. Presents of the newly-killed 
meat are sent about in all directions to relatives and friends, and 
feasting and merrymaking prevail for several days among all 
classes. (4) For some time previous to the actual festival, it is 
customary for the Malagasy to visit their elders and superiors 
in rank, bringing presents of money, fowls, fruit, &c., using 
certain complimentary formulae and expressions of good wishes. 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 65 

The abundant rains which usually fall in November soon 
make the hills and downs, which have got so brown and dry 
during the cold season, to become green again, and although 
wild flowers are certainly not plentiful, there are several kinds 
which now make their appearance. Among these are the 
Vonenina,^ with large pink flowers ; the Avbko,^ bright crimson ; 
the Ntfinakdnga,3 deep blue ; several small vetch-like plants 
with yellow flowers ; many others with minute yellow compound 
flowers, and some few other kinds. 

Besides flowers growing on the ground, there are many shrubs 
and small trees now in blossom, although some are by no means 
confined in floral display to the warm and rainy season. Along 
the hedges in one or two localities is a small bush, with clusters 
of purple flowers, called Famamo ; ^ branches of these shrubs 
are sometimes placed in a pool or stream, so as to stupefy, and 
thus easily obtain, any fish present in the water. Very con- 
spicuous are the bright yellow flowers of the Tainakbho 5 and the 
Tsidfakbmby ^ and the orange yellow spikes of the SevaJ More 
showy and handsome still perhaps are the abundant large yellow 
flowers of the prickly-pear, which is so largely used for hedges 
and for the defences of the old towns and villages. A species 
of Hibiscus,^ is not uncommon, with yellow flowers, which have 
deep red in the centre ; yellow seems indeed the most common 
colour in the flora of Imerina. At this time of the year also 
three or four species of aloe come into flower. The larger of 
these, called Vdhona 9 by the Malagasy, is much used for plant- 
ing as a hedge, from its fleshy leaves being armed with sharp 
prickles ; its tall flower-spike shoots up very rapidly to a height 
of 4 or 6 feet. Another and smaller one, called Sahondra,^^ has 
its flowers branching at the top of the stalk something like a 
candelabrum. The numerous flowers attract, as they expand, 

^ Vinca rosea, L. ^ Vigiia angivcnsis, Baker. 

3 Commelyna madagascaiica, C. B. Clarke. ■♦ MundiUea suberosa, Benth. 
5 Cassia Icvvigata, Willd. ^ Ccesalfinia scfiaria, Roxb. 

7 Btiddleia madagascariensis, Lam. ^ Hibiscus diversifolius, Jacq. 

9 Aloe macroclada, Baker. ^° Aloe capitata, Baker. 



66 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

swarms of bees. Another plant, like an aloe in appearance, 
called Tar^tra^ by the natives, has long leaves, with a sharp 
spine at the ends only ; and its flower-stalk shoots up like a 
small mast to a height of 20 feet, with widely-spreading branch- 
lets and an immense number of light-coloured flowers. Strong 
fibre used as thread is obtained from the leaves, the name of the 
plant being indeed that used for " thread." The tall flower-stalks 
of these aloes and agaves form quite a noticeable feature in 
the Imerina landscape in the early summer. In the orchards, 
soon after the mango has finished flowering, we may see the 
curious whitish flowers of the Rose-apple,^ a sort of ball of long 
stamens, showing conspicuously among the foliage. 

Towards the beginning of December the earlier crop of rice 
comes into ear ; and should the rains fall as usual during 
November, the remaining portions of the great rice-plain will 
be all planted out with the later crop, the whole of the level and 
its branching valleys presenting an unbroken expanse of green. 
Of this, the early rice shows distinctly as a darker shade of 
colour, although it will soon begin to turn yellow, as the grain 
ripens under the steady heat and the plentiful rainfall. Perhaps 
this is the time when Betsimitatatra is seen in its most attractive 
and beautiful aspect, for every part of it is covered with rice in 
some stage or other of growth and cultivation. 

Since the reception of Christianity by the people of the 
central provinces of Madagascar, Christmas Day has become a 
very generally observed festival. As far as can be ascertained, 
the first Protestant missionaries (i 820-1 836) do not appear to 
have enjoined its observance upon their converts ; it seems to 
have become customary to keep it as a festival at some time 
during the suppression of open Christian worship, probably 
during the latter years of Ranavalona I., when severe measures 
against the " praying people " became less common. However 
this may be, on the re-establishment of the L.M.S. Mission in 
1862, the observance of Christmas became very general with the 

^ Agave Ixtli, Karw. ^ Eugenia malaccensis, L. 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 6/ 

Christians, and it has kept its hold upon them ever since. 
Every congregation meets in the morning of the day, either in 
its own church, or, more frequently, in the case of the country 
people, in large united gatherings of half a dozen to a dozen 
neighbouring congregations in the open air. Looking round on 
the country from any good position in the capital during the 
forenoon of Christmas Day and following days, one may see at 
many miles' distance, on various elevated points, a great mass 
of white, showing where one of these large assemblies is 
gathered together for worship. To such services people who 
are seldom seen at church on other occasions make a point of 
coming ; although one can hardly believe that their motives for 
attendance even then are of a very high order. It is a great 
day for showing off the best dresses the people possess, or can 
borrow or hire for the occasion ; the men often look very un- 
comfortable and awkward in suits of European cloth clothing, 
instead of their far more becoming and graceful native Ictmba, 
over white shirt and trousers. And the women, although they 
wisely retain the Idmba, often have these of brightly coloured 
silk, and they also consider it a point of good breeding to sport 
the smartest of shoes and boots they can procure, although they 
seldom cramp their feet in such uncomfortable contrivances on 
other occasions. Jewellery, coral beads, and other ornaments 
are brought out, their hair is elaborately plaited, handsome 
embroidered dresses are worn, smart parasols and sun-shades 
are carried, and every one tries to get something extra to show 
himself, and especially herself, to the best advantage. 

Great pains and trouble are often taken to get up special 
hymns, or at least musical compositions with some Scripture or 
religious allusions in them, for the Christmas services ; these are 
often elaborate and wonderful performances, and [sometimes the 
teacher is paid a considerable sum for his trouble in training his 
choir. Several sermons or addresses are delivered at these out- 
door gatherings, and the services of popular and eloquent preachers 
are often secured, so as to give greater interest to the occasion. 



68 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

About Christmas-time also many congregations have a feast 
together, generally in some mango orchard, for the sake of the 
shade. Here the people are arranged in rows on either side of 
primitive tablecloths consisting of fresh banana-leaves. Great 
piles of boiled rice are brought in huge wooden platters, 
generally the sahctfa or rice-winnowing dish ; while the laoka or 
accompaniments, consisting of stewed beef or geese or fowls, 
with gravy and green vegetables, is brought in any and every 
kind of crockery that can be borrowed for the feast. The repast 
is concluded by a dessert of sliced pineapple, peaches, and 
bananas, all of which fruits are cheap and plentiful ; and it is a 
pleasant sight to see the people enjoy themselves in this 
innocent fashion. 

In Imerina there is only about two hours' difference in the 
length of the longest day, about Christmas, and the shortest 
day, early in July. It is dark at about seven o'clock on the ist 
of January, and at about six o'clock on the ist of July. Thus 
we have no long evenings ; but, on the other hand, we escape 
the long nights and the short days of the English winter. We 
lose also the long twilights of the temperate zone, although I 
have never seen the almost instantaneous darkness one some- 
times reads about in books as following the sunset. There is 
a twilight of from fifteen to twenty minutes' duration in this 
part of Madagascar. Very seldom have we a wet morning in 
any part of the year, and the heat is not more oppressive than 
it often is in hot summers in England. 

It may be interesting to notice at this point the numerous 
words used by the Malagasy to indicate the different times of 
the day, from morning to evening. Clocks and watches are 
comparatively a recent introduction into Madagascar, nor do 
the people ever seem to have contrived any kind of sun-dial, 
although, as will be seen, they did use something else as a kind 
of substitute for such a timekeeper. It should be remembered 
that the hours given (counting in European fashion) as equiva- 
lents for these native divisions of the night and the day are 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 



69 



only approximations, and must be taken as the mean of the 
year, or, in other words, at about the time of equal day and 
night, towards the end of March or of September. They are as 
follows : — 



(Maniaton' alina, 
Misdsaka alina, 

Maneno sdhona, 

Mancno akoho, 

Maraiiia alina koa, 

Maneno goaika, 
(Manga vodilanitra, 
^ Mangoan' atsindnana, 
\Ma ngl ran-drd tsy, 

Ahitan-tsbratr' omby, 

Mazava rdtsy 

Mifoha olo-niazofo, 

Maraina koa, 
( Vdky masoandro, 
•j Vaky dndro, 
KPiakdndro, 

Antoandro be ndnahary, 

Efa bana iiy dndro, 

Mihintsaiia an do, 

Mivoaka bmby, 

Maim-bohon-dvdvina, 

Afa-drdnom-pandla, 

Manara vdva ny dndro, 

Misandratra dndro, 

Mitatao hdratra, 

Mitatao vovonana, 
Mandray tokonana ny dndro, 

IMitsidika dndro, 
Ldtsaka iray dla ny dndro, 
Soldfak' dndro, 
j Tdfaldtsaka ny dndro, | 
(Mihilana ny dndro, j 
A m-pitotba tn-bdry, 
(Mby amin' ny dndry ny dndro, 
\ A ni-paniatoran-Jdnak' bmby, 
Mby am-pisbko ny dndro, 
Mody bmby Ura-bao, 



about 


12.0 


midnight 


n 


2.0 


n 


3-0 


)j 


4.0 


)> 


5-0 


M 


5-15 


5> 


5.30 



Centre of night, \ 

or 
Halving of night, j 
Frog-croaking, 
Cock-crowing, 
Morning also night, 
Crow croaking, 
Bright horizon, \ 
Reddish east >• 
Glimmer of day, j 
Colours of cattle can be seen. 
Dusk, . „ „ „ 

Diligent people awake, „ ,, „ 

Early morning, „ „ „ 

Sunrise, 
Daybreak, - „ 6.0 

)> j> ' 
Broad daylight, ) 

Dew-falls, „ 6.15 

Cattle go out (to pasture), „ „ „ 

Leaves are dry (from dew), 

Hoar-frost disappears, 

The day chills the mouth. 

Advance of the day. 

Over (at a right angle with) the 
purlin. 

Over the ridge of the roof. 

Day taking hold of the thres- 
hold, 

Peeping-in of the day, \ 

Day less one step (=:hour ?), j. 

Slipping of the day, j 

DecHne of the day = 
afternoon. 

At the rice-pounding place. 

At the house-post, 

At the place of tying the calf. 

At the sheep or poultry pen. 

The cow newly calved comes 
home, „ 4.30 



a.m. 



6.30 


n 


6.45 


M 


8.0 


M 


9.0 


M 


12.0 noon 


12.30 p 


.m. 


i.o 


>» 


1.3 


)> 


to 




2.0 


)) 


n )) 


M 


n )) 


)> 


3.0 


>> 


4.0 


» 



These only refer to the two or three winter months. 



5.0 p.m 


5.30 „ 


545 » 


6.0 „ 


6.15 „ 


6.30 „ 


6.45 M 


7-0 „ 


8.0 „ • 


8.30 „ 


9.0 „ 


9-30 „ 


[0.0 „ 


[2.0 „ 



70 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Tafaphka iiy andro, Sun touching (J.c.y the eastern 

wall), about 

Mody omby, Cattle come home, „ 

Mcna masoandro, Sunset flush, „ 

Maty masoandro, Sunset Qit. " Sun dead "), „ 

Miditra akoJio, Fowls come in, „ 

Somavibisdmby, Dusk, twilight, „ 

Maizim-bava-vilanyj Edge of rice-cooking pan 

obscure, „ 

Manokom-bary olona, People begin to cook rice, „ 

Homam-bary olona, People eat rice,i „ 

Tapi-mihlnana, Finished eating, ,, 

Miindry olona, People go to sleep, „ 

Tapi-mandry olona, Every one in bed, „ 

Mipba-tafbndro, Gun-fire, „ 

Mainaton' alina, Midnight, „ 

This list is, I think, a very interesting one and shows the 
primitive pastoral and agricultural habits of the Hova Malagasy 
before they were influenced by European civilisation. Previous 
to their knowledge of clocks and watches (which are still 
unknown to the majority of people away from the capital), the 
native houses thus served as a rude kind of dial. As, until 
recent times, these were always built with their length running 
north and south, and with the single door and window facing 
the west, the sunlight coming in after mid-day at the open door 
gave, by its gradual progress along the floor, a fairly accurate 
measure of time to people amongst whom time was not of very 
much account. In the forenoon, the position of the sun, nearly 
square with the eastern purlin of the roof, marked about 
9 o'clock ; and as noon approached its vertical position, about 
the ridge-pole, or at least its reaching the meridian, clearly 
showed 12 o'clock. Then, as the sunlight gradually passed 
westward and began to peer in at the door, at about i o'clock, 
it announced " the peeping-in of the day " {initsidika andro) ; 
and then, as successive points on the floor were reached by the 
advancing rays, several of the hours of the afternoon were 
sufiiciently clearly marked off: — "the place of rice-pounding" 
{am-pitotbam-bary\ as the light fell on the rice-mortar, further 
into the house ; " the calf-fastening place " {am-pamatoran-jdnak* 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 7I 

omby\ as the rays reached one of the three central posts 
supporting the ridge, and where the calf was fastened for the 
night ; and then, " touching " {tafapakd), when the declining 
sunshine reached the eastern wall, at about half-past four in the 
afternoon. Other words and notes of time, it will be seen, are 
derived from various natural phenomena. There is a phrase, 
jinja dndry, meaning " house-post notching," to denote notches 
or marks cut in the southern ridge-post to mark the gradual 
advance of the sun's rays, and from them the hours of the 
afternoon. Some other words for the divisions of time used by 
the Malagasy may be here noted. Thus " a rice-cooking " 
{indray mdhamdsa-bdry) is frequently used to denote about half 
an hour ; while " the frying of a locust " {indray mitbno valdld) 
is a phrase employed to describe a moment. 

Many words exist in the Malagasy language to denote 
different appearances of Nature which are somewhat poetical 
and seem to show some imaginative power. Thus the light 
fleecy clouds in the upper regions of the atmosphere are called 
" sky gossamer " {farora-ddnitra) ; the sun is the " day's-eye " 
(ijtdsodndro) ; the galaxy is the " dividing of the year " (efi- 
taond) ; the rainbow is " God's large knife " idntsiben' Andria- 
mdnitrd) ; and a waterspout is the " tail of the sky " {rdmbon- 
ddnitrd). 

January is usually the wettest month in the year in Imerina ; 
and in some years there occurs what the Hova call the hafitoana 
or " seven days," that is seven days of almost continuous rain, 
although it more often lasts only three or four days. Such a 
time is not only a most uncomfortable one for all who have to 
go about, especially for the Malagasy, with their thin cotton 
clothing ; but it is also most disastrous for the houses, com- 
pounds, and boundary walls. The continuous rain soaks into 
these and brings them down in every direction. From the 
steep situation of the capital, almost every house compound 
is built up on one side with a retaining-wall, and on the other 
is cut away so as to form a level space. These walls or 



72 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

"batteries," as they are termed, are often badly constructed 
and of very insufficient strength and thickness ; the constant 
moisture soaks in, and down come hundreds of stones and tons 
of earth, blocking up the narrow paths and making locomotion 
more difficult than ever. The enclosing walls of compounds 
and gardens, made of several layers of the hard red soil, 
are also apt to be brought down in ruin at such times, 
although it is wonderful to see for how many years such 
structures will endure the storms and heavy rains of successive 
seasons. 

The prolonged moisture combined with the heat of this time 
of the year naturally makes everything grow luxuriantly. Our 
gardens are gay with flowers ; and in many places the open 
downs display a considerable amount of floral beauty. I have 
never seen elsewhere so beautiful a display of wild flowers as 
that which met our view when travelling from Antsirabe in 
Vakinankaratra to Antananarivo in the middle of December, 
1887. Leaving Antsirabe and proceeding for several miles 
towards the north-east, the level country up to the foot of the 
long ridge running north and south, which is ascended about 
four hours after leaving Antsirabe, was gay with flowers, which 
covered the downs, and in places gave a bright colour to the 
surface of the ground. Among these the most prominent was 
a pale pink flower on stems from a foot to eighteen finches 
high (called by the people Kbtosay\^ and also the lovely 
deep-blue flower called Nifinakctnga (lit. " guinea-fowl's tooth," 
see p. 65 ante), which latter occurred abundantly among the 
grass. 

In many places, especially near villages, a plant with small 
pale-blue flowers,^ almost exactly like our English " forget-me- 
not," grew in dense masses, but on stems a foot or two feet high, 
showing a blue-tinted surface even at a considerable distance. 
The Vonenina (see p. 65), with a pale-pink flower, was very 
frequent, as well as several species of bright yellow flowers. 

* Sopubia triphylla, Baker. ' Various species of Cynoglossuiu. 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 73 

Three or four species of white-flowered plants, one of which was 
a clematis,! were very frequent ; and here a few late examples 
of terrestrial orchids were seen. 

We reckoned that there were from twenty to thirty different 
species of wild flowers then in bloom on these downs of 
Vakinankaratra, gladdening our eyes by their varied beauty 
and abundance as we travelled northwards on that glorious 
morning. As we got to the higher ground, however, I noticed 
that the blue Nifinakanga became very scarce. The pale-pink 
Kbtosay was also much less abundant on the heights, but the 
white orchids were still in flower in many places. Seven weeks 
previously these upper downs had been also gay with great 
masses of a brilliant crimson flower, a leguminous plant, 
probably an Indigofera^ which grew in clusters of many scores 
of spikes growing close together. But in December only here 
and there was there a flower left, and hardly a seed-pod, the 
great majority having been scattered by the winds. 

Not only do flowers and verdure delight our eyes at this 
time of the year, but this is the season when the greatest variety 
of fruit comes in. Bananas, pine-apples, and two or three other 
fruits may be had all the year round, but in the rainy season 
we also get grapes, peaches, mangoes, plums, quinces, and 
oranges, and latterly apples are also becoming plentiful. 

Autumn : March and April. — Generally, both crops of 
rice — the earlier and the later — are all cut by the end of April, 
although in the northern parts of the province harvest is usually 
five or six weeks after that date. But if the rains are late and 
should happen to be scanty in February and March, as was the 
case this year (1894), harvest work is still going on at the end 
of May. In fact, owing to there being these two crops of rice, 
with no very exactly marked division between the two. autumn, 
in the sense of rice-harvest, is going on for about four months, 
and sometimes longer, as just mentioned, and extends over the 
later months of summer as well as the two months of autumn 

^ Clematis Boj'cri, Hook. 



74 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

or Fctrarano (March and April). In January those portions of 
the great rice-plain which lie north-west of the capital become 
golden yellow in hue, and after a few days, patches of water- 
covered field may be noticed in different places, showing where 
the crop has been cut, and the few inches of water in which it 
was growing show conspicuously in the prospect. As the weeks 
advance, this water-covered area extends over larger portions 
of the rice plain, until the whole of the early crop has been 
gathered in, so that in many directions there appear to be 
extensive sheets of water. I well remember, when once at 
Ambohimanarina, a large village to the north-west of Antana- 
narivo, how strange it appeared to see people setting out to 
cross what seemed a considerable lake. But of course there 
was no danger, as the water was only a few inches deep. 

As there are channels to conduct water to every rice-field, 
small canoes are largely used to bring the rice, both before and 
after it has been threshed, to the margin of the higher grounds 
and nearer to the roads. At the village just mentioned, which 
is like a large island surrounded by a sea of rice-plain, there is 
one point where a number of these channels meet and form 
quite a port ; and a very animated scene it presents at harvest- 
time, as canoe after canoe, piled up with heaps of rice in the 
husk, or with sheaves of it still unthreshed, comes up to the 
landing-place to discharge its cargo. 

In a few weeks' time the watery covering of the plain is 
hidden by another green crop, but not of so bright and vivid 
a tint as the fresh-planted and growing rice. This is the 
kblikSly or after-crop, which sprouts from the roots of the old 
plants. This is much shorter in stalk and smaller in ear than 
the first crop, and is often worth very little ; but if the rains are 
late, so that there is plenty of moisture, it sometimes yields a 
fair quantity, but it is said to be rather bitter in taste. 

In cutting the rice the Malagasy use a straight-bladed knife ; 
and as the work proceeds, the stalks are laid in long curving 
narrow lines along the field, the heads of one sheaf being 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. J^ 

covered over by the cut ends of the stalks of the next sheaf. 
This is done to prevent the ears drying too quickly and the 
grain falling out before it reaches the threshing-floor. This 
last-named accessory to rice-culture is simply a square or circle 
of the hard red earth, kept clear from grass and weeds, and 
plastered with mud, and generally on the sloping side of a hill 
or rising ground close to the rice-field. Here the sheaves are 
piled round the threshing-floor like a low breastwork. No flail 
is used, but handfuls of rice are beaten on an upright stone 
fixed in the ground, until all the grain is separated from the 
straw. The unhusked rice is then carried in baskets to the 
owner's compound, and is usually stored in large round holes 
with a small circular opening dug in the hard red soil. These 
are lined with straw, and the mouth is covered with a flat stone, 
which is again covered over with earth ; and in these receptacles 
it is generally kept dry and uninjured for a considerable time. 
In most years the end of April and the beginning of May are 
very busy times with the Malagasy ; almost all other work must 
give way to the getting in of the harvest ; the fields are every- 
where dotted over with people reaping ; almost all slaves, as 
well as the poorer people we meet along the roads, carrying a 
considerable load of freshly-cut grain on their heads, or a basket 
filled with akbtry or unhusked rice, and large quantities are 
spilt all along the roads and paths. Hence some of the most 
frequented thoroughfares, like the chief embankment leading 
out from the city westwards, swarm with rats and mice, which 
must pick up a very good living at this time of the year. 
Other animals also take toll from the harvest, especially the 
Fody, or Madagascar cardinal-bird, which may be seen some- 
times in large flocks, the bright scarlet plumage of the cock- 
bird making him a very conspicuous feature of the avifauna 
during the warmer months. These birds sometimes do 
considerable damage to the rice-crop. Large quantities of 
rice-stalks are now to be seen in all directions, spread 
out to dry in the sun, and they are also placed for the 



']6 .MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

same purpose on the top of the clay boundary walls of the 
compounds. 

Of late years it has become rather common for the Christian 
congregations to have a Harvest Thanksgiving service in their 
churches. The church is often elaborately decorated with rice 
and fruits of all descriptions, sometimes in fact to an absurd 
extent, so that the building looks like a greengrocer's store, as 
indeed may be occasionally seen even in churches in England. 
A much more commendable feature of these thanksgiving 
services is the bringing of offerings of rice and various kinds 
of produce for the support of the evangelists and school 
teachers. 

As the colder weather advances, the mornings are often 
^*°ggyj 3.t least a thick white mist covers the plains and valleys 
soon after the sun rises, and remains for an hour or two until 
his increasing power disperses it. Seen from the higher 
grounds, and from the most elevated parts of the capital, this 
mist often presents a very beautiful appearance : a billowy 
white sea of vapour is brilliantly lit up by the sunlight, and 
out of this sea the hill-tops rise up like islands. But these misty 
mornings also reveal many things which can only be seen by 
very close observation, in clear sunshine, especially the webs 
of various species of spider. Many kinds of bush are seen to 
be almost covered by geometrical webs : one species seems to 
choose the extremities of the branches of the Sbngosongo,^ but 
the most common is a web averaging five or six inches in 
diameter, vhich is spread horizontally on tufts of grass, and 
may be seen by thousands, half a dozen or so in a square yard. 

The aspect of vegetation, except in the rice-fields, can 
hardly be said to change much during the autumn months. 
A plant with pale yellow flowers 2 may be noticed by thousands 
in marshy grounds, giving quite a mass of colour in many 
places. A significant name given to autumn is Menahitra, i.e., 
*' the grass is red," that is, turning brown. 

^ Euphorbia splcmicns, Bojer. = Graiigca madcraspataua, Poir. 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. yj 

WINTER: May, June, July, and August. — We have 
no snow, nor is there any native word for it, for even the 
highest peaks of Ankaratra are too low for snow to fall on 
them ; we never see ice (although adventurous foreigners have 
once or twice seen a thin film of it on pools on the highest 
hillsides) ; hoar-frost, however, is not uncommon, and occasion- 
ally the leaves of some species of vegetables, as well as those 
of the banana, turn black with the keen night air. And since 
there is no rain during our Imerina winter, the paths are dry, 
and it is the best time for making long journeys, especially as 
there is little to be feared from fever. Winter is therefore a 
pleasant time ; the skies are generally clear, the air is fresh and 
invigorating, and to the cool and bracing temperature of the 
winter months is doubtless largely due the health and strength 
which many Europeans enjoy for years together in the central 
provinces of Madagascar. 

The long period without rain at this season naturally dries 
up the grass, and the hills and downs become parched and 
brown. Maintctny, i.e., " the earth is dry," is one of the native 
names for this season, and it is very appropriate to the con- 
dition of things in general. ^ The rice-fields lie fallow, affording 
a scanty supply of grass for the cattle ; and many short cuts 
can be made across them in various directions, for the beaten 
track over embankments, great and small, may be safely left 
for the dry and level plain. 

The winter months are a favourite time for the native 
custom oi famadihana, that is, of wrapping the corpses of their 
deceased relatives in fresh silk cloths, as well as removing some 
of them to a new tomb as soon as this is finished. These are quite 
holiday occasions and times of feasting, and, not unfrequently, 
of much that is evil in the way of drinking and licentiousness. 

Another very prominent feature of the social life of the 
Hova Malagasy is the system of holding large open-air markets 

^ Another curious native name for the end of the dry season is Mahardra 
vavy antitra, i.e., " making the old women spit " ! 



78 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

all over the central province on the various days of the week. 
The largest of these is that held in the capital every Friday 
(Zoma), at which probably 10,000 people are densely crowded 
together, and where almost everything that is grown or manu- 
factured in the province can be purchased. But two or three 
of the other markets held within four or five miles of Anta- 
nanarivo do not fall far short of the Zoma market in size, 
especially those at Asabotsy (Saturday) to the north, and at 
Alatsinainy (Monday) to the north-east. To a stranger these 
great markets present a very novel and interesting scene, and 
a good idea may be obtained as to what can be purchased here 
by taking a stroll through their crowded alleys and noticing 
what is offered for sale. The market is roughly divided into 
sections, according to the kind of goods sold. In one part 
are oxen and sheep, many of which are killed in the morning, 
while the meat is cut up and sold during the day. Here are 
turkeys, geese, ducks, and fowls by the hundred ; here are great 
heaps of rice, both in the husk and either partially cleaned, as 
" red rice," or perfectly so, as " white rice " ; here are piles of 
grey locusts, heaps of minute red shrimps, and baskets of snails, 
all used as " relishes " for the rice ; here is mdngahazo or manioc 
root, both cooked and raw, as well as sweet-potatoes, earth-nuts, 
arum roots {saonjo)^ and other vegetables. In another quarter 
are the stalls for cottons and prints. American sheetings and 
Lancashire calicoes, as well as native-made cloths of hemp^ 
rofia palm fibre, cotton, and silk ; and not far away are 
basketfuls and piles of snowy cocoons of native silk for weaving. 
Here is the ironmongery section, where good native-made nails, 
rough hinges, and locks and bolts can be bought ; and near 
them are the sellers of the neat little scales of brass or iron, 
with their weights for weighing the " cut money " which forms 
the small change of the Malagasy. There we come to the 
vendors of the strong and cheap native mats and baskets, 
made from the tough peel of the Zozoro papyrus,^ and from 
* Cypcrus imerinensis, Boeckl. 



I 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 79 

various kinds of grass, often with graceful interwoven patterns. 
Yonder a small forest of upright pieces of wood points out 
the timber market, where beams and rafters, joists and flooring 
boards can be purchased, as well as strong bedsteads and doors. 
Not far distant from this is the place where large bundles of 
Herana sedge,^ arranged in sheets or " leaves," as the Malagasy 
call them, for roofing, can be bought ; and near these again are 
the globular water-pots, or siny^ for fetching and for storing 
water. But it would occupy too much time and space to 
enumerate all the articles for sale in an Imerina market. It 
is greatly to be lamented that native rum is now largely sold 
at many markets, in bottles, gourds, and in big earthen pots ; 
and it must be added that at the Antananarivo market slaves 
are also exposed for sale. This is done in rather a quiet corner 
of the market, as if the people were a little ashamed of it. 

Perhaps the star-lit skies of the evenings of the summer 
months are the most beautiful of all the year. At this season 
some of the finest of the northern constellations are seen at 
the same time as several of the southerly ones. The Great 
Bear stretches over the northern sky ; higher up is the Northern 
Crown ; the Pleiades,^ and Orion 2 with his many brilliant 
neighbours, are overhead ; the Southern Cross, with its con- 
spicuous " pointers " in the Centaur, is high in the southern 
heavens ; and the Magellan Clouds are clearly seen nearer the 
horizon ; and all across the firmament is the Galaxy, or, as the 
Malagasy call it, the efi-taona, " the division," or " separation of 
the year." And then, as the circling year revolves, the great 
serpentine curve of Scorpio appears, and Sirius, Capella, 
Canopus, and many another glorious lamp of heaven light up 
the midnight sky. Imerina is certainly a very favourable 

^ Cypcnis latifolius^ Poir. 

^ Curiously enough, the Malagasy appear to have given names only to these 
two prominent dusters of stars. The Pleiades they call Kofokeli-miadi-laona, 
i.e., " Little boys fighting over the rice mortar " ; while the three stars of Orion's 
belt they call Tclo-no-ho~refy, i.e., " Three make a fathom." They have no 
name for the first-magnitude stars, or for the planets, except for Venus, as a 
morning star, viz., Fitarikandro, i.e., "Leader of the day." 



80 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

country for astronomical observation, and good work may be 
expected from the Observatory established five years ago by 
the Jesuit Mission. 

The month of August, the closing one in this review of the 
year, is often the coldest month of all, cold, that is, for a country 
within the tropics. All through August the keen south-eastern 
trades generally blow strong, and although in sheltered places 
the afternoon sun may be quite warm, the mornings and 
evenings are very cold, and during the night the mercury will 
often descend to very near the freezing point. The mornings 
are frequently misty ; on some days there are constant showers 
of erika or drizzly rain, alternating with bright sunny days and 
clear skies ; these latter seem the very perfection of weather, 
bracing and health-giving. But this cold weather often brings 
malarial fever, which attacks great numbers of Malagasy, and 
also brings affections of the throat and chest, to which many 
fall victims. At such times their thin cotton clothing seems ill 
adapted for protection against the climate. This circumstance 
has often struck me as showing how difficult it is to change the 
habits of a people ; for centuries past the Hova have lived in 
this cool highland region, yet, until very lately, few of them 
have made any change in their dress, which was well enough 
adapted for the purely tropical region from which they origin- 
ally came, but quite unfitted for the keen cool air of the winter 
months in a country nearly 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

The great rice-plain to the west of the capital and all the 
broader valleys still lie fallow, although in various places exten- 
sive sheets of water show that irrigation is commencing. Many 
of the fields are now being dug up, and water is allowed to flow 
over them to prepare the soil for planting. In the lesser valleys 
and at the edges of the larger rice-plains the landscape is en- 
livened by the bright green of the ketsa grounds, the smaller 
rice-fields or nurseries, where, as already described, the rice is 
sown broadcast before transplanting into the larger fields. 

There are not many deciduous trees in Imerina, so the 



THE CHANGING YEAR IN CENTRAL MADAGASCAR. 8 1 

numerous orchards, chiefly of mangoes, look green throughout 
the year. Several prominent trees, however, do cast their 
leaves, notably the Avmvy,^ the Cape-lilac,^ and the Voanonoka^^ 
a large tree very like an oak. But the Cape-lilac is beginning 
to put out its green buds ; the peach-trees are a mass of 
blossom, and the Sbngosbngo 3 in the hedges is beginning to 
show its brilliant scarlet or pale yellow bracts. Wild flowers 
are still scarce, but the lilac flowers of the Sevabe 4 bloom all 
through the year. The golden-orange panicles of the SevaS 
now come into bloom. Nature is arousing from the inaction of 
the cold season, and the few trees now flowering give promise of 
the coming spring and summer. 

Towards the end of this month the people begin to burn the 
dry and withered grass on the hillsides, as previously described. 
This time of the year is that during which, as well as in 
the earlier months of the cold season, the Malagasy are busy 
with house building and house repairing. Many of their houses 
are still built of the hard red clay which covers most of the 
country, although sun-dried brick is rapidly superseding this ; 
and now is the time when both clay and bricks can be made as 
well as built into houses. There being no heavy rain, there is 
no risk of the work being injured if finished before the rainy 
season comes on. 

But it is time that I conclude these sketches of Imerina, and 
of the varied aspects of Nature, as well as of some of the social 
aspects of the people, which may be observed throughout the 
year. Much more might be recorded, but what has been now 
noted down must suffice. My principal object in writing this 
chapter has been to endeavour to give, if possible, to people in 
England some clear notion of that part of the country where 
we live, and of the climate and conditions surrounding us here 
as well as some aspects of the social life of the people amongst 
whom we work day by day. 

* See pp. 54, 58, ante. ^ Ficus Melleri, Baker. 3 See p. 76. 

* Solanmn miriciilahim, Ait. s Buddleia madagascariensis. Lam, 

7 



CHAPTER V. 

THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA : ITS PHYSICAL FEA- 
TURES AND LEGENDARY HISTORY; AND THE VOL- 
CANIC REGIONS OF THE INTERIOR. 



Ancient volcanoes of Central Madagascar — Hot springs — Fossil remains in lime- 
stone deposits — Crater-lake of Andraikiba — Tritriva Lake — Colour of water 
— Remarkable appearance of lake — Legends — Mythical monsters — Depth of 
lake — View from crater walls — Mr. Baron on volcanic phenomena — Ankara- 
tra Mountain — Ancient craters — Lava streams — Volcanic rocks — Recent 
character of volcanic action. 



MADAGASCAR is not at present one of those regions 
of the earth where volcanic disturbances occur ; but 
there is ample evidence, from the numerous extinct craters 
found in various parts of the island, that at a very recent period, 
geologically considered — possibly even within the occupation 
of the country by its present inhabitants — it was the theatre 
of very extensive outbursts of subterranean energy. The whole 
island has not yet b§en examined with sufficient minuteness to 
determine the exact extent of these old volcanoes, but they 
have been observed from near the south-east coast in S. Lat. 23°, 
and in various parts of the centre of the island up to the north- 
west and extreme north, a distance of 680 miles ; and probably 
a more careful survey would reveal other links connecting more 
closely what is at present known as only a series of isolated 
groups of extinct craters. In the central provinces of Mada- 
gascar there are two large clusters of old volcanic cones and 
vents : one of them in and about the same latitude as the 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. 83 

capital (19° S.), but from fifty to seventy miles away to the west 
of it, in the neighbourhood of Lake Itasy ; the other in the 
district called Vakinankaratra, situated about eighty miles to 
the S.S.W. of Antananarivo, and south-west of the great central 
mountain mass of Ankaratra. 

This second volcanic region stretches from twenty to thirty 
miles from Antsirabe away west to Betafo and beyond it, and 
contains numerous and prominent extinct craters, such as Ivoko, 
latsifitra, Vohitra, Tritriva, and many others, some of which 
have been described by the graphic pen of the late Dr. Mullens, 
in his Twelve Months in Madagascar (pp. 214-219). The 
doctor says that he counted in this southern group about sixty 
cones and craters. 

There are also many hot springs in this Vakinankaratra 
region, the most noted of which are those at Antsirabe. At 
this place one of the chief springs is largely charged with lime, 
which has formed an extensive deposit all over a small level 
valley sunk some 20 feet below the general level of the plain 
around the village. For a long time past this place has 
furnished almost all the lime used for building in the capital, 
and the central province of Imerina. Besides the deposit over 
the floor of the valley, there is also a compact ridge-shaped mass 
of lime accretion, 70 feet long by 18 to 20 feet wide, and about 
15 to 16 feet high. This has all been deposited by the spring 
which kept open a passage through the lime to the top. Within 
the last ten or twelve years, however, the spring has been tapped 
by a shaft, of no great depth, a few yards to the north, over 
which a large and commodious bath-house has been erected 
by the Norwegian Lutheran Mission ; and here many visitors 
come to bathe in the hot mineral water, which has been found 
very beneficial in rheumatic and other complaints. A little 
distance to the south-west is another spring, not, however, hot, 
but only milk-warm, the water of which' is drunk by those who 
bathe in the other spring. This water has been shown to be, 
in chemical constituents, almost identical with the famous Vichy 



84 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

water of France. All over the valley the water oozes up in 
various places ; and about half a mile farther north are several 
other springs, somewhat hotter than that just described, to 
which the natives largely resort for curative bathing. 

During the excavations for the foundations of the bath- 
house, the skeletons of several examples of an extinct species 
of hippopotamus were discovered, the crania and tusks being 
in very perfect preservation. Some of these are now in the 
Museum at Berlin ; the finest specimen was sent to the Museum 
of the University of Christiania in Norway. This Madagascar 
hippopotamus was a smaller species than that now living in 
Africa, and is probably nearly allied to, if not identical with, 
another hippopotamus {H. Lemerlei), of which remains were 
found in 1868 by M. Grandidier, in the plains of the south-west 
coast. I was informed by the people that, wherever in these 
valleys the black mud is dug into for a depth of three or four 
feet, bones are sure to be met with. Probably a series of 
excavations would reveal the remains of animals, birds, and 
reptiles formerly inhabiting Madagascar. From the internal 
structure of the teeth and bones of the hippopotami discovered 
at Antsirabe, traces of the gelatine being still visible, it is 
evident that the animals had been living at a comparatively 
recent period. There have been occasional vague reports of 
the existence of some large animal in the southern parts of the 
island ; possibly the hippopotamus is not yet absolutely extinct 
there ; and perhaps the half-mythical stories of the Songomby, 
Tokandia, Lalomena, and other strange creatures current among 
the Malagasy are traditions of the period when these huge 
pachyderms were still to be seen in the lakes and streams and 
marshes of Madagascar. 

Within a few miles of Antsirabe are two crater lakes. The 
nearer and larger of these is called Andraikiba, which lies 
distant about four miles due west. This is a beautiful sheet 
of water, blue as the heavens in colour, in shape an irregular 
square, but curving round to the north-west, where it shallows 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. 85 

into a marsh, which is finally absorbed in rice-fields. The lake 
is said to be of profound depth, but the hills surrounding it are 
not very lofty, rising only about 200 feet above the surface of 
the water, from which they rise steeply. Fish and water-fowl 
and crocodiles also are said to be very abundant in and on its 
waters. 

But the most interesting natural curiosity to be seen in the 
neighbourhood of Antsirabe is the crater-lake of Tritriva. This 
is situated about ten miles to the south-west, and is a pleasant 
ride of two hours by palanquin. Travelling at first in a westerly 
direction, the road then turns more to the south-west, and skirts 
the southern foot of the old volcano of Vohitra (already men- 
tioned). Passing some mile or two south of the high ground 
round the southern shores of the Andraikiba lake, the road 
gradually ascends to a higher level of country, so that in about 
an hour and a halfs time we are about as high as the top of 
Vohitra — probably about 500 feet. Reaching a ridge between 
two prominent hills, we catch our first sight of Tritriva, now 
about two or three miles distant in front of us. From this point 
it shows very distinctly as an oval-shaped hill, its longest axis 
lying north and south, and with a great depression in its centre ; 
the north-eastern edge of the crater wall being the lowest part 
of it, from which point it rises gradually southwards and west- 
wards, the western edge being, at the centre, from two to three 
times the height of the eastern side. To the north are two 
much smaller cup-like hills, looking as if the volcanic forces, 
after the main crater had been formed, had become weaker and 
so been unable to discharge any longer by the old vent, and 
had therefore formed two newer outlets at a lower level. 

Descending a little from the ridge just mentioned, we cross 
a valley with a good many scattered hamlets, and in less than 
half an hour reach the foot of the hill. A few minutes' pull up 
a tolerably easy slope, perhaps 200 feet in height, brings us to 
I the top, at the lowest part of the crater edge ; and on reaching 
the ridge the crater of the old volcano and its lake is before us, 



III 



86 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

or, rather, below us. It is certainly an extraordinary scene, and 
unique of its kind. The inner sides of the crater dip down very 
steeply on all sides to a deep gulf, and here, sharply defined 
by perpendicular cliffs all round it, except just at the southern 
point, is a rather weird-looking dark green lake far below us, 
the water surface being probably from 200 to 300 feet lower 
than the point we are standing upon, and consequently below 
the level of the surrounding country. The lake, exactly shut 
in by the cliffs of the crater surrounding it, is not blue in colour, 
like Andraikiba, although under a bright and cloudless sky, but 
a deep and somewhat blackish green. It is undoubtedly an 
old volcano we are now looking down into ; the spot on which 
we rest is only a few feet in breadth, and we can see that this 
narrow knife-edge is the same all round the crater. Outside 
of it the slope is pretty easy, but inside it descends steeply, here 
and there precipitously, to the edge of the cliffs which so sharply 
define the actual vent and, as distinctly, the lake which they 
enclose. Looking southwards, the crater edge gradually 
ascends, winding round the southern side, and still ascending 
as the eye follows it to the western, the opposite side, where 
the crater wall towers steeply up from 200 to 300 feet higher 
than it does on the east, where we are standing. The lake we 
judge to be about 800 to 900 feet long and 200 to 250 feet wide, 
forming a long oval, with pointed ends. The cliffs which 
enclose it appear to be from 40 to 50 feet in height, whitish in 
colour, but with black streaks where the rain, charged with 
carbonic acid, has poured more plentifully down their faces. 
These cliffs are vertical and in some places overhang the water, 
and from their apparently horizontal stratification are no doubt 
of gneiss rock. In coming up the hill I noticed a few small 
lumps of gneiss among the basaltic lava pebbles. The strongest 
feature of this Tritriva is the sharply defined vertical opening 
of the vent, looking as if the rocks had been cut clean through 
with an enormous chisel, and as if they must dip down — as is 
doubtless the case — to unknown depths below the dusky -green 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITrIvA. 8/ 

waters. At the northern end of the lake is a deep gorge or 
cleft, partly filled with bushes and other vegetation. Southward 
of this, on the eastern side, the cliffs are still lofty and overhang 
the water, but at about a third of the lake's length they gradually 
decrease in height, and at the southern point they dip down to 
the level of the lake, so that at that part only can the water 
be approached. On the western side the cliffs keep a pretty 
uniform height all along the whole length. 

So steep is the inward slope of the crater walls, that we all 
experienced a somewhat " eerie " feeling in walking along the 
footpath at its edge ; for at a very few feet from this a false 
step would set one rolling downwards, with nothing to break 
the descent to the edge of the cliffs, and then to the dark 
waters below. We proceeded southwards along the crater edge 
to the higher part at the south-east, where the view is equally 
striking, and the depth of the great chasm seems still more 
profound. Here we waited some time, while most of our men 
went down to one of the hamlets in the plain to the east to 
get their meal, in which quest, however, they had only poor 
success. On expressing a wish to taste the Tritriva water, one 
of our bearers took a glass, and descending by a breakneck 
path, went to fetch some water from the lake. He was so long 
away that we were beginning to feel uneasy, but after a quarter 
of an hour he reappeared with the water, which tasted perfectly 
sweet and good. He also entertained us with some of the 
legends which were certain to have grown up about so weird- 
looking a place as Tritriva. Pointing to two or three small 
trees or bushes growing on the face of the cliffs near the northern 
point of the lake, he told us these were really a young lad and 
lass who had become attached to each other ; but the hard- 
hearted parents of the girl disapproving of the match, the youth 
took his loin-cloth, and binding it round his sweetheart and his 
own body, precipitated her with himself into the dark waters. 
They became, so it is said, two trees growing side by side, and 
they now have offspring, for a young tree is growing near them ; 



SS MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

and in proof of the truth of this story, he said that if you pinch 
or break the branches of these trees, it is not sap which exudes, 
but blood. He appeared to believe firmly in the truth of this 
story. 

He also told us that the people of a clan called Zanatsara, 
who live in the neighbourhood, claim some special rights in the 
Tritriva lake ; and when any one of their number is ill, they 
send to see if the usually clear dark green of the water is 
becoming brown and turbid. If this is the case they believe it 
to be a presage of death to the sick person. 

Another legend makes the lake the former home of one of 
the mythical monsters of Malagasy folk-lore, the Fananim-plto- 
Ibha^ or " seven-headed serpent." But for some reason or other 
he grew tired of his residence, and shifted his quarters to the 
more spacious and brighter lodgings for seven-headed creatures 
afforded by the other volcanic lake of Andraikiba. 

This same bearer assured us that in the rainy season — 
contrary to what one would have supposed — the water of the 
lake diminishes, but increases again in the dry season. He 
told us that there is an outlet to the water, which forms a spring 
to the north of the mountain. I noticed a white line a foot 
or two above the surface of the water all round the foot of the 
cliffs, showing a probably higher level than at the time of our 
visit. 

Walking round to the southern end of the crater edge, I 
proceeded up the far higher saddle-back ridge on the western 
side. Here the lake seems much diminished in size, and lying 
far down at an awful depth. But a magnificent and extensive 
view is gained of the surrounding country ; the long flat-topped 
lines of hill to the east running many miles north and south, 
and surrounded directly east by two perfect cones (old 
volcanoes, Votovorona and Ihankiana) ; the peaked and jagged 
range of V6amb6rona to the south-east ; the enormous mass 
of Ibity to the south ; and then west, a flat region broken by 
abrupt hills ; to the north-west are the thickly populated valleys 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. 89 

towards Betafo, with many a cup-shaped hill and mountain 
marking old volcanic vents ; and beyond this a high mass of 
country, with serrated outline against the sky, showing the 
district of Vavavato and the peaks of lavohaika ; and finally, 
coming to due north is the varied grouping of the hills which 
form the northern termination of the central mountain mass 
of Ankaratra. Between us and these again is the extensive 
plain of Antsirabe, with the white walls and gables of the 
church and the mission buildings plainly visible in the bright 
sunshine, although ten or eleven miles distant — altogether a 
panorama long to be remembered. From this point also the 
significance and appropriateness of the name given to the old 
volcano is clearly seen : Tritriva is a combination of the words 
tritry, a word used to describe the ridge on the back of a 
chameleon or a fish, and Iva^ low, deep ; so that the name very 
happily describes the long steep western ridge or crater wall, 
and the deep chasm sweeping down from it. 

It may be added in conclusion, that the slopes of the crater 
both inside and out are covered over with turf, which grows on 
a dark brown volcanic soil, mingled with rounded pebbles of 
greenish or purple lava, very compact and close in structure, 
and containing minute crystals scattered sparingly through it. 
Occasional blocks of this are found round the edge of the crater 
wall, and the same rock crops out at many places on the steep 
inner slopes. I did not notice any vesicular lava or scoria ; and 
at a little homestead not far from the north-eastern foot of 
Tritriva, I was surprised to find the hady or fosse dug to 12 or 
14 feet deep almost entirely through the red clay found all 
through the central regions of the island. The dark brown 
volcanic soil, here seen in section, appeared to be only 18 inches 
deep, with layers of small pebbles. So that the discharge of 
the volcanic dust and ash appears to have extended only a 
short distance from the mountain, at least it does not appear 
to have been very deep, unless, indeed, there has been much 
denudation. It must be remembered, however, that this point 



90 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

is to the windward side of the hill ; probably the volcanic soil 
is deeper to the west of it. The much greater height of the 
western wall of the crater is no doubt due to the prevailing 
easterly winds carrying the bulk of the ejected matter to the 
west, and piling it up to two or three times the height of the 
eastern side. After seeing the amount of gneiss rock which 
must have been blown out of the vent, I expected to have found 
much greater quantities of it, and in larger blocks, than the very 
few and small fragments actually seen on the outer slopes. The 
greater portion, however, is probably covered up under the 
quantities of volcanic dust and lapilli which were subsequently 
ejected. 

The Rev. Johannes Johnson, of the Norwegian Missionary 
Society, says : " It will interest you to hear that the depth of 
the Volcanic Lake of Tritriva has been measured. Here is a 
rough diagram showing the places where soundings were made, 
S < I 2 3" > N. At I it was found to be 328 feet deep, at 2 it 
was 443 feet, and at 3 it was 474 feet in depth. The natives 
expected it would prove to be much deeper than this." Thus it 
appears that although not, as popularly supposed, unfathomable, 
the depth of this remarkable sheet of water is still very consider- 
able for its small area, and is quite sufficiently profound to have 
given rise to the many weird legends connected with it in the 
popular imagination. 

The two best known volcanic regions of Central Madagascar 
have already been referred to in this chapter, and as some of the 
readers of these pages may like to have fuller information as 
to these interesting parts of the country, I will not attempt to 
describe them myself, but will quote half a dozen paragraphs 
from a paper by my friend and brother missionary, the Rev. R. 
Baron, F.L.S., F.G.S., contributed to the Quarterly Journal of the 
Geological Society, for May, 1889, and entitled "Notes on the 
Geology of Madagascar." Mr. Baron is the chief authority on 
the geology of the island and has made a special study of the 
petrology ; and all that he describes is from personal observa- 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRtvA. 9I 

tion and microscopic examination of all the known rocks of the 
country. 

"Volcanic Phenomena. — The scene of the greatest dis- 
play of former volcanic activity in Central Madagascar has 
undoubtedly been Ankaratra. This mountain, situated some 
twenty to thirty miles to the south-west of Antananarivo, is the 
highest in the island, attaining an altitude of nearly 9,000 feet 
above the sea. It is a broad and elevated mass of land, with no 
very sharp peaks or ridges, and having, for the most part, a 
gentle slope of 40-8° on all sides, so that it is not easy to define its 
exact limits. Roughly speaking, however, it may be said to 
cover an area of perhaps fifty square miles. It is the wreck of a 
huge, but ancient, subaerial volcano. There are at present, so 
far at least as my observations go, no traces of cones or craters, 
but there are volcanic ejectamenta scattered about which bear 
witness to their former existence. From this volcano vast floods 
of liquid lava have issued and overflowed the surrounding 
country to the extent, probably, of from 1,500 to 2,000 square 
miles. In fact, almost the whole of Vakinankaratra province 
has been covered by a sheet of lava. This lava has been poured 
out at various times, several beds being superimposed on one 
another. Some of the lava-streams are probably no less than 
twenty or twenty-five miles in length, and, before they thin out, 
from 300 to 500 feet in thickness. They are mostly of a basaltic 
character. 

" The lava which has issued from the north, north-east, and 
north-west of the mountain seems to be almost entirely olivine- 
basalt ; whilst that which has issued from the south, south-east, 
and south-west seems to be mainly nepheline-basalt. Trachyte 
also exists in sheets, apparently below the basalt, on the south- 
east and south-west side of the mountain. The three highest 
points of Ankaratra are Tsiafajavona, 8,494 ^^et above the sea ; 
Tsiafakafo, 8,330 feet ; and Ambohitrakoholahy, 7,730 feet. 
Tsiafajavona, the highest peak, and Tsiafakafo consist of olivine- 
basalt, Ambohitrakoholahy of trachyte. 



92 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

"It would be interesting to know at what period Ankaratra 
was in a state of eruption ; but our knowledge of the mountain 
and the surrounding district is, as yet, too scanty to help us to 
any conclusion on the matter. There is evidence sufficient, how- 
ever, to show that the volcano is of comparatively ancient date ; 
for, in the first place, all signs of craters or cones seem to have been 
effaced through denudation, though the presence of fragmentary 
materials (which, however, have largely disappeared) manifest 
their former existeruce. Then, again, numerous deep valleys 
have been excavated out of the hard basaltic covering by the 
many streams that come down from the mountain, leaving long 
tongues of lava diverging from the central mass. Many of these 
streams have cut clean through the beds of lava, bringing into 
view the gneiss upon which they are superimposed. 

" Some thirty or forty miles to the south of Ankaratra there 
are to be seen about a dozen remarkably conical hills without 
craters. Whether they are the cores of former volcanoes or 
eruptive bosses or remnants of a former lava sheet, it would be 
difficult to say, though I am inclined to regard them as the last. 
Votovorona and lakiana (or Ihankiana?) are probably the 
highest of these cones, though even these are of no great height. 
Votovorona is 350 feet high, and has been protruded through 
granite. The angle of its slope is over 50°. The rock is 
nepheline-hornblende-phonolite. A few similar cones exist on 
the south-east of Vavavato mountain. About twenty or twenty- 
five miles N.N.E. of Ankaratra, and some seven or eight miles 
W.S.W. of Antananarivo, there is another of these probably 
eruptive bosses. It is a low conical knob of perhaps 150 or 
200 feet high, and is also known by the name of Votovorona. 
It consists of olivine-basalt. There seem to have been a few 
small outflows of lava from the hill, and it not improbably forms 
the core of an old volcano. 

" In Mandridrano district, on the western side of Lake Itasy, 
and in the neighbourhood of Betafo, in Vakinankaratra (the 
former being fifty-five miles west, and the latter seventy-five 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRIVA. 95 

miles S.S.W., of the capital), there are numerous volcanic cones, 
which are undoubtedly much more recent than the volcanic pile 
of Ankaratra. Both localities are about 1 30 miles from the east 
coast of the island, and 170 from the west coast. It is hardly 
necessary to say that all these volcanoes are extinct, and that 
there are none in activity at the present time in any part of 
Madagascar. On the west side of Lake Itasy the volcanic 
cones exist in great numbers, and these therefore shall be first 
described. 

" The extinct volcanoes of the district of Mandridrano 
extend for a distance of about twenty miles north and south, 
and perhaps three or four east and west. The cones are thickly 
studded over the district, in some parts clustering together more 
thickly than in others. Occasionally there is a series of cones 
which have evidently been heaped up by the simultaneous ejec- 
tion of scoriae from different vents situated on the same line of 
fissure, but so that the cones have run one into the other, leaving 
a ridge, generally curvilinear, at the summit. None of these 
extinct volcanoes reach the height of 1,000 feet. Kasige, which 
is probably the highest, I found by aneroid to be 863 feet above 
the plain. This is a remarkably perfect and fresh-looking 
volcano, whose sides slope at an angle of 32° or 33°. The scoriae 
on the sides have become sufficiently disintegrated to form a 
soil, on which is found a by no means scanty flora. On its top 
is an unbreached funnel-shaped crater, which measures, from the 
highest point of its rim, 243 feet in depth. Contiguous with 
Kasige, and adjoining its south side, though not so high, there is 
another volcano, Ambohimalala, and many others are to be seen 
near by. 

" One thing with regard to these volcanic piles soon strikes 
the observer; this is, that in the majority of the cones one side of 
the crater is higher than the other. Not only so, but the higher 
side is situated in most instances on the north, north-west, or 
west of the crater. This is accounted for by the direction of the 
wind during the eruption, causing the ejected fragments to 



94 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

accumulate on the leeward side of the vent. Now we know 
that the south-east trades blow during the greater part of the 
year in Madagascar, hence the unequal development of the sides 
of the cones. The same thing may also be observed in the 
volcanic piles in the neighbourhood of Betafo. 

" A very large number of the cones have breached craters, 
whence lava has flowed in numerous streams and flooded the 
plains around. These streams and floods consist, in most 
instances, of black basaltic lava ; a sheet of this lava, the mingled 
streams of which have flowed from Ambohimalala and some 
other vents, has covered the plain at the foot of Kasige to such 
an extent as almost to surround the mountain. Similar sheets are 
to be seen in other parts of the district, but they are so much 
alike, that a description of one will suffice for all. Amboditai- 
mamo is a small volcanic cone at the south-west end of Ifanja 
marsh, and at the northern confines of the volcanic district. It 
possesses a breached crater turned towards the east. From this 
has issued a stream of lava which, following the direction of the 
lowest level of the ground, has swept through a small valley 
round the northern end of the cone, and spread out at its 
western foot This sheet of lava, which is extremely rough on 
the surface, occupies but a small area of some two or three 
square miles. It has been arrested in its flow in front by the 
form of the ground. It is cut through in one part by a stream 
(Ikotombolo) which, in some places, has worn a channel to the 
depth of eighty or ninety feet. Its surface, which is slightly 
cellular, is covered by hundreds of mammiform hillocks, which 
must have been formed during the cooling of the liquid mass. 
The hillocks are mostly from twenty to thirty feet high, and 
apparently are heaped-up masses of lava, and not hollow blisters. 
The lava itself is black, heavy, and compact, being porphyritic 
with somewhat large crystals of augite. As yet it is scarcely 
decomposed sufficiently to form much of a soil, though grass and 
a few other plants grow on it abundantly. 

" As to the nature of the volcanic rocks of the district, it may 



THE CRATER LAKE OF TRITRiVA. 95 

be said that these comprise basalt, andesite, trachyte, trachytic 
tuff, palagonite tuff, and limburgite. Some of the trachytic rocks 
contain large porphyritic crystals of glassy felspar (sanidine). 
Pumice, obsidian, and pitchstone do not seem anywhere to be 
found. 

" In addition to the numerous scoria-cones, there may be 
seen scattered here and there in the district some dozen or more 
other volcanoes, differing entirely in character from those which 
have been spoken of above. These are large bell-shaped 
hummocks of trachyte or andesite. They are without definite 
craters, though one or two of them have more or less conspicuous 
depressions on their summits, showing that eruptive action has 
not been altogether wanting. These hummocks are chiefly 
composed of a light-coloured compact rock. This rock, having 
originally had a highly viscid or pasty consistency, has accumu- 
lated and set immediately over the orifice through which it was 
extruded. 

"It is hardly necessary to say that these extinct volcanoes of 
Mandridrano must have been in activity in comparatively recent 
times. Possibly they belong to the historic period, though, so 
far as I am aware, no tradition lingers with regard to their being 
in a state of eruption. That they are, at any rate, of recent 
date is shown by the good state of preservation in which most 
of the cones are still found and by the undecomposed (or slightly 
decomposed) character of the lava-streams that have issued from 
them. There have been no terrestrial disturbances or modifica- 
tions of any magnitude since the days of their fiery energy ; the 
conformation of hill and dale was the same then as now, for in 
every instance the lava-streams have adapted themselves to the 
form of the existing valleys." 



CHAPTER VI. 

AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS IN MADA- 
GASCAR ; WITH NATURAL HISTORY AND OTHER 
NOTES. 

The Rest-house — Amboniloha Hill — A deserted village — ^Ambatovory rock — 
Woodland paths — Birds — Lizards and chameleons — Grasshoppers — Pro- 
tective colouring — Waning colours — Beetles — Ants and ant-nests — Ball- 
insects — Spiders — Butterflies — King Butterfly — Solitary wasps — ^Wasp-nests 
— Angavokely Mountain — Extensive prospect. 

BY the kind consideration of the Directors of the London 
Missionary Society for the comfort and health of their 
missionaries in the central province of Imerina, we have had 
for some years past a pleasant Country-house or Sanatorium, to 
which, after a year or so of steady labour in college, or school, 
or hospital, or church and district, we can go for a fortnight or 
a month's quiet holiday. This peaceful resting-place is situated 
about twelve miles east of Antananarivo, on the Tamatave road, 
a mile and a half beyond the mission station of Isoavina, and a 
mile or less west of a great rounded mass of granite rising 
about 400 feet above the rice-valleys, and known as Ambato- 
vory, i.e., " Round rock." On the summit and eastern and 
western slopes of this huge boss of rock are numerous trees, 
much more plentiful on the western side, where they stretch 
down into a deep valley and form an amphitheatre of wood and 
bush. This vegetation is probably a remnant of the original 
forest, which once covered a much larger area of this mostly 

bare and treeless Imerina, and it forms a refreshing contrast to 

96 



AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. 9/ 

the moory hills and rocky mountains which are seen in every 
direction. The Mission Rest-house is a good six-roomed 
dwelling on the slope of the hill facing the south, and from it 
the ground falls rapidly down to the rice-valleys a couple of 
hundred feet below, the large piece of ground belonging to the 
house joining on to the bush and scattered trees of the Amba- 
tovory forest, so that in two minutes' time one can stroll into 
the woods, through which a number of paths have recently 
been cut, or, turning in the opposite direction, can walk over 
the breezy downs towards Isoavina. Here is the pleasant 
mission-house of Mr. Peake, with its long row of cottages for 
the workmen in the industrial school which he has carried on 
for several years, its school- and class-rooms and its pretty 
church and school-house, forming altogether a model mission 
station. 

Behind the Rest-house rises for several hundred feet above 
it a rounded hill called Amboniloha, i.e., " Over-head," a not 
inappropriate name. Like scores of hills throughout Imerina, 
a number of deeply-cut lines round the summit show that this 
place was formerly the site of a well-fortified town. These 
lines, which can be seen for miles away, prove on closer 
inspection to be deep fosses cut in the hard red earth, a 
treble line of defence one within the other, the innermost 
rampart being strengthened by a low wall of massive stones. 
No building now remains in this " deserted village," but many 
squares of grass-grown stones can be traced, showing the 
former outline of the wooden framework of the houses ; and 
on the highest spot there is an ancient tomb, where doubtless 
some of " the rude forefathers of the hamlet " sleep their last 
sleep. ., 

In front of the house, looking south-west, the view is partly 
shut in, at a mile or two's distance, by lofty rocky hills rising 
high above the rice-valleys far below ; but to the south-east one 
gets a peep into a distant prospect of lines of hills, some of the 
nearer ones being enormous masses of bare rock ; while to the 



98 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

east the view is closed by the smooth, rounded slopes of Amba- 
tovory itself, with the woods around it and stretching down into 
the deep valley at its base. 

There are many pleasant walks in the neighbourhood of the 
Sanatorium. One of these is to the top of the Ambatovory 
rock, from which there is an extensive view, and around which, 
to east and south, are fine trees and pleasant shady spots, where 
a picnic party can be improvised, and where ferns and other 
plants can be gathered. A few years ago there was a small 
village on the spot ; four or five years ago there were about 
that number of houses ; while now there is not one left, the 
people, as is usual throughout Imerina, deserting these incon- 
venient heights for the plains. But a row of half-a-dozen old 
tombs, with small timber houses on their tops, shows that this 
was a village of one of the noble clans or Andrlana, who alone 
are allowed to make such wooden houses, Trano masina or 
Trdno mandra, as they are called (i.e., " Sacred houses," or 
" Cold houses " i). These are, however, now tumbling to pieces, 
and after two or three more rainy seasons heaps of rotting wood 
will be all that is left over the tombs of these departed great 
ones of the district. 

Another easily reached spot is a detached rock, something 
like a miniature Ambatovory, but a short distance to the south 
of it. Here a scramble over a great sloping surface of gneiss 
brings us to a rough ascent leading to an ancient gateway. The 
top of this rock was evidently a fort of the old times, for, 
except where we climb up, there is no approaching the summit 
and no need of fosses or ramparts, as the smooth rock slopes 
away perpendicularly all around, and in the days before guns 
and gunpowder a dozen resolute men could have barred the 
narrow approach against a hundred assailants. 

The paths through the woods are, however, among the most 
pleasant places for a walk in the neighbourhood of Ambato- 
vory ; and although the small remnant of old forest is too 
^ " Cold," because they are houses having no hearth or fire to warm them. 



ambatov6ry, one of our holiday resorts. 99 

limited in extent to furnish much variety in animal life, 
there is still a great deal to interest those who have a taste 
for natural history, especially if they will only use their eyes. 
Of four-footed creatures in the shape of mammalia there 
are none, except possibly some of the small hedgehog-like 
creatures (the Centetidae), as the woods are far too restricted in 
range for any species of the lemurs to find a home there, and 
there is no great variety even of birds. There is a space of 
fifteen or sixteen miles of bare moors between this place and 
the upper forest, so that few of the numerous feathered tribes 
of the wooded regions come over the intervening country. In 
the warm season the kow-kow kow-koo of the Kankafotra^ the 
Madagascar cuckoo, is continually heard among the trees and 
bushes, as well as the chirping and whistling cries of a few of 
the smaller and less conspicuous birds, and the cooing note of 
one of the wood-pigeons. About the rocks one may constantly 
hear the querulous cry of the little Hitsikitsika, or kestrel, and 
see them hovering in the air or darting about ; and now and 
then we come across a flock of the Papdngo, or Egyptian kite, 
perched on the trees, or swooping down near the native houses 
to carry off an unwary chicken or mouse. Of course the ubi- 
quitous Goaika, or native crow, is never far away. With his 
fine white collar and square white patch on his breast, he has 
a very clerical appearance ; he haunts the neighbourhood of the 
great open-air markets, where he apparently picks up a good 
living from the scattered rice and refuse of various kinds. In 
the warm season flocks of the little weaver-birds may be seen, 
both the Fody, the male of which is mostly of a brilliant scarlet 
at the hot season of the year, and the smaller Tsikirity^ in sober 
brown livery, which darts down like an arrow on the rice-fields 
in companies of thirty or forty together. In the rice-fields the 
Takatra, a brown stork, may be sometimes seen stepping 
solemnly about. He builds an enormous nest, which looks as 
large as a truss of hay and is fixed on the fork of a tree or on 
the edge of a large rock, and there are many superstitions and 



TOO MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

fables connected with him. In the old times of idolatry, if one 
of these storks crossed the path along which any of the chief 
idols was being carried, it was immediately taken back, and it 
was thought equally unlucky if it crossed the road in front of 
the sovereign. 

The reptiles to be found near Ambatovory are small and 
inconspicuous. Two or three species of lizard are frequently 
seen: the pretty little Antsictntsy, with brown coat and white 
lines and dark spots along its sides, eight or ten inches long, 
darts about like an arrow on rocks and sunny banks, while a 
smaller species, about four inches long, is of an exquisite green 
colour above, with black and white lines along its sides, and pale 
grey underneath. It is often seen running around the fleshy 
leaves of the aloes, its tinting forming a protective resemblance 
among its surroundings. Equally beautiful are the bright tints 
of some of the small chameleons — black and yellow, and red 
and green — and equally protective also, in case of need, is their 
power of changing into dull grey or brown when alarmed. 
Small pretty brown snakes may be often seen, from eighteen 
inches to two feet long, and happily they are perfectly harmless, 
as, indeed, are all the serpents of this great island — at least, 
there are none whose bite is dangerous. And yet it is amusing 
to see how the Malagasy leap out of their way with the greatest 
alarm. We found on one occasion a very large earthworm, 
three times as long and bulky as any we had ever seen in 
England. 

But perhaps it is the insects which attract one's attention 
most constantly. On the open downs, and when the sun is 
shining, the air is filled with the hum of chirping insect life 
from the many species of grasshoppers, crickets, and small 
locusts which cover the ground. Every step among the long 
dry grass disturbs a score of these insects, which leap in all 
directions from one's path as we proceed, sometimes dashing on 
one's face with a smart blow. The majority of these are of 
various shades of brown and green, and some of the larger 



AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. lOI 

Species of grasshopper are remarkable for their protective 
colouring. Here is one whose legs and wings are exactly like 
dry grass ; the body is like a broad blade of some green plant, 
the antennae are two little tufts like yellow grass, and the eyes 
are just like two small brown seeds. But, curiously enough, 
when it flies a pair of bright scarlet wings make its flight very 
conspicuous. You pursue it, to catch such a brightly coloured 
insect, when it settles, and lo ! it has vanished ; only something 
resembling green or dry grass remains, which it requires sharp 
eyes to distinguish from the surrounding herbage. Other grass- 
hoppers are entirely like green grass blades and stalks, and 
others, again, resemble equally closely dried grass, and unless 
the insects move under one's eyes it is almost impossible to 
detect them. One is puzzled to guess where the vital organs 
can be placed in such dry-looking little sticks. There is one 
species of mantis also, which, in the shape and colour of its 
wings, legs, antennae, and body, presents as close a resemblance 
to its environment as do the grasshoppers. Their curious heads, 
however, which turn round and look at one in quite an uncanny 
manner, and their formidably serrated fore-legs or arms, put up 
in mock pious fashion, give them a distinctly different appearance 
from the other insects. In the dry and cooler season, on almost 
every square foot of ground is a large brown caterpillar, often 
many of them close together, feeding on the young blades of grass. 
But the most handsome insect one sees on the downs is the 
Valalanamboa^ or dog-locust. This is large and is gorgeously 
coloured, the body being barred with stripes of yellow and black, 
while the head and thorax are green and blue and gold, with 
shades of crimson, and the wings are bright scarlet. It seems a 
most desirable insect for a cabinet, but it is impossible to keep 
one, for it has a most abominable smell, and this, as well as its 
probable possession of a nauseous taste, appears to be its pro- 
tection, so that no bird or other creature feeds upon it. This 
insect seems, therefore, a good example of " warning colours " ; 
it has no need of " protective resemblance " lest it should be 



102 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

devoured by enemies ; it can flaunt its gay livery without fear, 
indeed this seems exaggerated in order to say to , outsiders : 
"Hands off!" ''^ Nemo me ivipune lacessit." The Malagasy 
have a proverb which runs thus : " Valalanamboa : ny tompony 
aza tsy tia ; " i.e., " The dog-locust, even its owner dislikes it." 

There are many species of beetles to be seen, although none 
of them are very handsome or conspicuous. The most common 
kind is a broad flat insect, about an rnch long, and dull dark- 
brown in colour, which crosses one's path at every step. 
Another is seen chiefly on the bushes, a smaller insect, but 
bright shining jet-black. Another, which appears as if it 
mimicked a wasp in its habit of flight, is shot with brown and 
green, with very long legs, and is constantly taking short flights 
or running rapidly. Another one, but much more rare, has 
golden green and metallic tints on its wing-cases. But the 
insect which has puzzled us most is one that I have never seen 
but on one spot, viz., on a large bush of Roimeviy, a plant with 
acacia-like leaves, with prickles along the leaf-stalks, and on 
only one bush of this, which is within a few yards of the Rest- 
house at Ambatovory. It is like a beetle about five-eighths of 
an inch long, and almost hemispherical in shape. It is warm 
reddish-brown in colour, with a line of black and then of yellow 
next the head, and is perfectly flat below. These insects cluster 
closely, as thick as they can lie, in groups of from a dozen to 
more than a hundred together, all round the thicker stems, so 
that they look at a little distance like strings of large brown 
beads ; and in some of the topmost branches they form a con- 
tinuous mass for two or three feet. Amongst these shining 
brown insects are a few others of quite a different colour and 
shape, perfectly flat, like a minute tortoise, and of a uniform 
grey, exactly resembling the lichen on the bark of the tree, and 
the edges of the carapace scolloped.^ These grey insects are in 

^ Mr. Baron tells me that both kinds are certainly species of bug, and that 
they are common on other kinds of trees. They have a very bad smell. Nearer 
the forest are other kinds of bugs, but of the most brilliant colours, and also evil 
smelling. 



AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. IO3 

the proportion of about one to forty or fifty of the darker- 
coloured ones. There are also a few individuals of the same 
shape as the brown one, but yellowish-green in colour. What 
these grey insects can be, and what relation they bear to the 
much more numerous brown one, I cannot make out. Nor can 
I ascertain why they all remain motionless and in the same 
position for weeks together. During the three weeks of our stay 
here, at any rate, they seem not to have altered in position, 
although I think the lower clusters are slightly diminished in 
number. I thought at first that they must be feeding in some 
way on the tree, as their heads seem closely fixed to the bark, 
as indeed is the whole body ; but on minute examination I can 
find no trace of any puncture or sign of their gnawing or eating 
the bark, although the branches on which they are most thickly 
clustered seem more dry and withered than the others. Their 
torpid condition certainly does not arise from inability to move, 
for, on being disturbed or shaken off, they will fly a considerable 
distance, and will creep along the branches. I have noticed 
these insects on the same bush, and nowhere else, during 
previous visits to Ambatovory at this time of the year (Decem- 
ber), but not during the cold season.^ 

[Since writing the above, I have had another inspection, in 
the cold season, of the tree with these curious insects. There 
are now (June) to be seen not a single one of the brown bugs, 
but the branches are thickly covered with hundreds of young 
ones, about one-fourth to one-third of an inch long, but these 
are all flat, and grey in colour, with the edge of the body serrated. 
The difference in shape and colour in insects so closely associated 
together certainly seems remarkable.] 

The ants are, as in all tropical countries, very numerous and 
of many species. All of them, from minute kinds not an eighth 
of an inch long to others half an inch to five-eighths of an inch 
in length, appear to make nests in the ground, with circular 
shafts leading down to them from the surface. It is amusing to 
^ I have subsequently seen it in other places. 



104 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

watch the busy industry of these little creatures, the sides of 
the shafts being covered with their shining black bodies, those 
coming up being laden with a little pellet of earth, which they 
deposit outside the slope, and then hurry back down below. 
All round the mouth of the entrance is a considerable mound 
of earth, all brought up grain by grain by the busy workers. 
The ants are the scavengers of the country. No beetle, or 
worm, or grub, or animal matter of any kind, can be many 
minutes on the ground before it is detected by some ant, who 
communicates the fact forthwith to its fellows, and they imme- 
diately fall on the spoil, cut it in pieces, and convey it to their 
stronghold. It is astonishing to see the heavy loads — pieces of 
sugar-cane, or yam, or other food — that two or three ants will 
stagger along with for the common weal. Truly, although they 
are small folk, they are " exceeding wise." The thinking power 
in that minute point, an ant's head, is certainly one of the most 
marvellous things in animated nature. 

While speaking of wingless insects, I may notice here a very 
different kind of one from the ants, viz., the ball-insect {Sphero- 
therium sp.), of which there are several species in Madagascar. 
These insects, called not very elegantly by the Malagasy Tain- 
klntana^ or " star-droppings," have the power of instantaneously 
rolling themselves into an almost perfect sphere, which form 
they retain as long as any danger threatens them, and no force 
short of pulling them to pieces can make them unroll. The 
animal is formed of nine or ten segments, each with a pair of 
legs, and covered with a plate of armour ; while the head and 
tail are defended by large plates, each of which fits into the 
other and makes a more perfectly fitting suit of armour than 
was ever worn by medieval knight. There are several species 
of these pretty and curious creatures. The most common kind 
here is one which forms a ball barely an inch in diameter, and 
shining black in colour. Another, more rarely seen here, but 
common enough in the upper belt of forest, is of a beautiful 
brown colour like Russia leather, and is quite double the size of 



i 



AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. I05 

the first- mentioned one. In passing through the main forest in 
1892, we came suddenly one day to a part of the road which 
was so thickly covered by such a great number of these 
creatures that our bearers could not avoid trampling on them. 
These were of a bronze-green tint and are probably a third 
species. 

In all parts of Madagascar the spiders are very conspicuous 
members of the insect-world. The most common kind is a 
species of Epeira, which spins large webs and may be seen by 
scores between the branches of trees and the angles of buildings. 
These are large insects, their legs stretching over four or five 
inches, and their bodies being handsomely coloured with red and 
gold and silver markings. From the way in which these spiders 
cross with their great webs the fosses round the old villages they 
are called by the Malagasy Mampliahddy, i.e.^ " fosse-crossers." 
The main " guys " or stays of their webs are strong and thick 
yellow silk cords, which require an effort to break. Another 
species, also common, is somewhat crab-like in shape, with 
curious spiny processes on the abdomen and thorax. Other 
smaller species of spider, found on leaves and in flowers, are 
coloured exactly like their surroundings, some being of various 
shades of green, and others pure white, apparently that, with 
these protective resemblances, they may more easily pounce 
upon the smaller flies and other insects attracted to the flowers. 

In these bare upper highlands of Madagascar butterflies are 
not found in as great variety as in the warmer regions of the 
island. Still there are a few species which are common enough, 
the most plentiful being one which is satiny-blue above, and 
spotted with brown and grey underneath. This is to be seen all 
the year round, especially hovering over the Euphorbia hedges 
which divide plantations from the roads. Another, also toler- 
ably common, is a large reddish-brown butterfly, the wings 
edged with black and white. Much more rare is an insect with 
four large round white spots on dark chocolate-brown wings ; 
and another, dark-brown in colour, with eye-like spots of blue 



I06 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

and red. Several small species, yellow, white, or brown, or 
silvery-grey and blue, are found hovering over, or settling 
on, damp places ; and there are two or three white species, 
with black spots or lines on the edges of the wings. In 
the warmer season a handsome large Papilio is rather common 
in our gardens, with dark-green and sulphur-yellow spots and 
markings. And lastly, but rather scarce, is one of the hand- 
somest butterflies in the world (more strictly speaking, it is a 
diurnal moth), the Urania riphosa. This insect, with its colour- 
ing of green and gold, and scarlet and black, and its delicate 
fringing of pure white on the edges of the wings, is indeed one 
of the most lovely productions of Nature. The Malagasy call it 
Andrlandblo, i.e., "king butterfly" (or moth). 

We do not see many bees in this Ambatovory wood, but 
there are several species of solitary wasps, whose habits are very 
interesting. One species excavates a hole in the ground or on 
the side of a bank, and then, capturing some unfortunate spider 
or caterpillar, which she benumbs with her sting, carries it into 
the hole and lays an Qgg in its body, so that the little grub, 
when hatched, finds itself surrounded by food, and then eats its 
way out into the daylight. The hole is, after being filled up, 
so carefully concealed that it is quite impossible to discover it. 
Another species of wasp builds a series of cells of clay, which 
the busy worker brings in pellets and builds up layer by layer, 
fixing them to the sides of houses and rocks, and storing each 
cell with living food for its progeny in the same fashion as its 
mining cousin.^ 

Our longest excursion was one to the grand mountain of 
Angavokely, which is two or three hours' ride to the east, to the 
south of the Tamatave road. Angavokely is one of the highest 
and most conspicuous mountains in Imerina, rising 1,300 or 
1,400 feet above the general level of the province ; and it 

^ For a very full and illustrated account of these insects, see a paper by the 
Rev. C. P. Cory, " Notes on the Habits of the Solitary Wasps of Madagascar," 
Annual xiv., 1890, pp. 163-170. 



AMBATOVORY, ONE OF OUR HOLIDAY RESORTS. 10/ 

extends for two or three miles east and west, with two summits 
nearly equal in height, and quite a mile apart. The easternmost 
of these rises steeply from the surrounding valleys, and is 
crowned by enormous piles of rock, while the western summit 
rises with much gentler slopes covered with bush, except on the 
south side, where great masses of granite appear, looking like 
the towers of some Titanic castle. A couple of hours' ride 
brought us to the rice-valley immediately under the eastern peak, 
and from which we commenced the ascent, a pretty steep one. 
At about a third of the way up is a large bare sloping surface of 
rock, on which we were glad to rest and take breath. Again we 
climb up, the grass being very slippery, and foothold very dif- 
ficult. As we get higher we come into a dense shrubbery of 
bush and small trees ; and all around are hundreds of the large 
showy white flower called Tsingdtsa (a species of Crinuvt)^ with 
its long ribbon-like petals and powerful scent. One more halt 
at the base of the immense bare rocks which form the summit, 
and which tower grandly for 300 or 400 feet above us, and 
make us all look like pigmies in contrast, and then we make 
a final effort, scrambling up among the huge stones, until at 
length we come to a rough staircase between two walls of 
granite, with beautiful embroideries of moss and lichen and 
fern. Up, up we go, and at last come upon a level platform 
several hundred square yards in extent, and are glad to throw 
ourselves down on the grass and recover breath after our climb. 
From this " coign of vantage," many hundred feet above the 
valley, we have of course a very extensive and varied prospect. 
To the north-west is the round mass of Lohavohitra in Voni- 
zongo, and the long serrated ridge of Andringitra, with its cave 
(the Malagasy Delphi) ; away north is the line of Ambohimia- 
katra, and the point of Ambaravarambato (" Stone-gateway "), 
on the way to Antsihanaka ; from north-east to south-east is 
the long dark line of the upper forest, with Angavo and Ifody 
mountains, over which we cross on our way to and from the 
coast ; beyond this again is the treeless plain of Ankay ; and 



I08 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

still beyond and bounding the view, 50, 60, or 70 miles in the 
blue distance, is the larger and lower forest, and ridges and 
peaks which we can see clearly from Tamatave. Only due west 
is the view interrupted, for we are not yet on the topmost 
pinnacle, there being still a mass of rock 100 feet higher still, 
up to which our bearers scramble, but which we are quite 
content to leave them the honour of scaling, as the ascent 
appears somewhat difficult Still, by going round the edges of 
the platform, we can catch all the more prominent points to the 
south and south-west : Iharanandriana, on the road to Betsileo ; 
many familiar-looking hills west of the capital ; Antananarivo 
on its long rocky ridge, crowned by the group of royal palaces 
and two of the memorial churches ; and, rising gradually but 
unmistakably far above all, the mass of Ankaratra, the highest 
point of the island, 40 miles away, and its three or four central 
peaks nearly 9,000 feet above the sea, and about half as much 
as that from the general level of Imerina. Truly a grand 
prospect, for, except from Ankaratra itself, there is hardly any 
point where we could command such an extensive view as this. 
Steep down below us to the east is a pretty rice-valley stretching 
in a remarkably straight line for several miles both to north-east 
and south-west. The houses and hamlets below look as if a 
stone could be thrown upon them from this 1,000 or 1,200 feet 
of elevation ; and as our eyes follow the green rice-fields, village 
after village appears on the promontory-like tanety or gentle 
rising grounds, so that we think what a fine field of work there 
would be in this valley alone for a resident missionary. 




CHAPTER VII. 

MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 

Mixed nomenclature of coast and interior places — Early European influence — 
Arab and Portuguese names — Influence of Fady or Taboo — Name of Mada- 
gascar — Mountain names — The name-prefixes An- and Am Height and 

prominence — Mystery and dread — Size — Words meaning rock and stone — 
Animals and birds — Personal names for hills — Grandeur of mountain scenery 
— River names — Descriptive epithets — Lake names — Town and village names 
— Dual names — Names of capital and its divisions — Town names from natural 
features — Forests — River banks from animals — Personal — Tribal — Province 
names — Appendix on Betsileo place-names. 

PLACE-NAMES, it is now acknowledged, form one of the 
most reliable sources of information as to ancient and 
prehistoric times, and are among the most enduring and un- 
altering records of the past. In all the older countries of the 
world the names of the mountains and rivers, of the fields and 
the valleys, of the farms and villages and towns, as well as of all 
other geographical features, reveal the existence and successive 
occupation of the soil from remote epochs by many different 
races of mankind. And in the newer countries the names given 
to places tell in the plainest terms of their discoverers, and often 
fix the date of their becoming known to the civilised world. 

An inspection of a map of the island of Madagascar shows a 
curious difference between the nomenclature of the coast and 
that of the interior. In the latter the names are entirely native, 
for no European power has ever succeeded in establishing itself 
in the country for any lengthened period ; but the coast is 

fringed with a variety of European words — English, French, 

109 



no MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

and Portuguese — as well as with Malagasy names. Thus we 
find " William Pitt " Bay, " Chatham " Island, and Port " Liver- 
pool," commemorating the leading English statesmen of the time 
when the first complete survey was made of the coast by Capt. 
W. F. W. Owen, R.N., whose ships' names are also perpetuated 
in "Leven" Port and "Barracouta" Island." The treachery of 
the native population is remembered in " Murder " and " Grave " 
Islands, where some of Owen's crews were killed by the people ; 
English Admiralty and other officials' names were given to Port 
"Croker," Point " Barrow," " Dartmouth" River, Point " McClure," 
" Dalrymple " Bay, and " Barlow " Island ; and British surveys 
of the western coast have also left their mark in " Barren " 
Isles, and in "Crab," "Coffin," and "Sandy" Islands, in the 
Mozambique Channel ; and at the northern extremity of 
Madagascar we find " British " Sound (more properly Diego 
Suarez Bay), with four deep inlets called respectively by 
the names of "English," "Welsh," "Scotch," and "Irish" 
Bays. 

The earlier French intercourse is marked by the names of 
Fort Dauphin, Port Choiseul, Foule Pointe, and Louisbourg, 
a record of the monarchical times, nearly two centuries ago, 
when so many disastrous attempts were made by the French 
to establish themselves on the eastern side of the island.^ And 
going back further, to the discovery of Madagascar by Europeans, 
the maritime enterprise of the Portuguese three hundred and 
seventy or eighty years ago is marked indelibly on the map, 
together with their religious fervour, by the names of various 
saints which they gave to the chief capes all round its shores — 
St. Mary, St. Andrew, St. Vincent, and St. Sebastian ^ — as well 
as the Isle of St. Mary, the Bay and River of St. Augustine, the 
Bay of St. Luce, the Shoal of St. Bonaventura, the town of St. 

^ In certain old French maps Madagascar was called " He Dauphine," but this 
name did not obtain any permanence. 

2 The most northerly cape of Madagascar, now known as Cape Ambro or 
Amber, was formerly called Cape Natal, from its being discovered on Christmas 
Day Cdies Natalis Domini). 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. Ill 

Thomas (now called Tamatave ^), and the name of San Lorenzo, 
by which the island was known for long after its discovery.^ 
Two or three of their famous captains are also kept in remem- 
brance in " Antongil " (Antonio Gil) Bay, " Diego Suarez " Sound, 
and "Juan de Nova" Island. 

Going back earlier still, to the Arab settlements both on the 
south-east and north-west coasts of Madagascar, although these 
have left enduring traces of their presence in the language of 
the Malagasy, they do not seem, as far at least as our informa- 
tion at present extends, to have affected the place-nomenclature 
of the country. The Arabs have given the names used by many 
tribes to the days of the week and of the months, the terms 
connected with superstition, witchcraft, divination, &c., and words 
employed in the arts of civilised life — dress, money, bedding, 
music, &c. ; but their influence does not appear to have extended 
to the names of towns or geographical features, with two or three 
possible exceptions.3 Thus the name of the extensive lake of 
Alaotra, in the Antsihanaka province, which, according to the 
Rev. L. Dahle, is probably the Arabic Al-lutat, "the dashing of 
the waves," is the same word which is given as a name to 
the Arabs from beyond the Mozambique Channel, who are 
called by the Malagasy the "Talaotra."4 

The object of this paper is, however, to call attention to the 
Malagasy place-names in Madagascar ; to show how they illus- 
trate the mental habits of the people and their powers of 

^ " Tamatave " is called by the Malagasy " Toamasina," probably a corruption 
of " San Tomaso." 

= Mr. A. Tacchi suggests that "Antongil" is rather a corruption of "Santa 
Angelo," as nothing seems to be certainly known of any "Antonio Gil." Ngontsy, 
the name of a place on the north-west coast, is thought by Mr. Tacchi to be a 
corruption of " Saint Gontran " and another word of Portuguese origin. 

3 M. Grandidier has, however, pointed out several other names of places on the 
western coast which he believes are of Arab origin, although he does not give 
their meanings ; these are Kisimany, Kongony, Sada, Mibany, Kivinja, Sangoa, 
and Boinaomary. I should doubt some of these, which seem Malagasy words in 
whole or in part. 

4 In Dumont D'Urville's Vocahulairc Madckass-Fraii^aisc, alaotr is translated 
" au large." 



112 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

observation ; to point out some few historical facts which are 
probably preserved in certain names ; and to note a number of 
words of obscure or doubtful meaning which are embodied in 
many of the names of places, and which are possibly relics of an 
occupation of the island anterior to the arrival of the present 
prominent Malayo-Polynesian element in the population. Our 
knowledge of the various dialects of the Malagasy language is 
still too fragmentary and imperfect to allow of much being done 
at present in the direction indicated in this last point ; but one 
chief result aimed at in noting down here some of these par- 
ticulars is to provoke inquiry and research on the subject. 
Madagascar will prove an exception to almost every other 
country if a careful analysis of the names of its mountains 
and rivers, valleys and plains, towns and villages, and other 
geographical features, does not throw some light upon the 
earliest occupation of the island, and the successive waves of 
population which have passed over its surface. There are 
several reasons for believing that an earlier and less civilised 
race than the present inhabitants once occupied the interior of 
Madagascar, and it is possible that some of the obscurer words 
embodied in certain place-names are relics of this aboriginal 
people. 

There is, unfortunately, a peculiarity in the habits of the 
Malagasy, in common with all the Polynesian races, with regard 
to names, which introduces an element of uncertainty into 
geographical nomenclature, viz., the practice of tabooing words 
or particles which enter into the composition of the names of 
their chiefs. As all personal names have some distinct meaning, 
and are largely composed of commonly-used nouns, verbs, and 
adjectives, as well as the names of animals, plants, &c., it con- 
stantly occurs that the names of most familiar objects and 
actions have to be changed through forming part of their 
sovereign's or chief's names. From this cause, writes Mr. 
Hastie, British Agent at the Court of Radama I. (i 8 17-1826), 
" the names of rivers, places, and things have suffered so many 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 



113 



changes on the western coast that frequent confusion occurs ; 
for, after being prohibited by their chieftains from applying any 
particular terms to the accustomed signification, the natives will 
not acknowledge to have ever known them in their former sense " 
{Tyerman and Bennefs Voyages, p. 276, 2nd ed.). There is 
reason to believe, however, that this cause of change and un- 
certainty applies much less to the place-names of the central 
and eastern districts of the country, and that the taboo (Malag. 
fddy) there more affects the names of objects and actions than 
those of places. 

Before considering the names of places in Madagascar, a 
word or two may be said about the name of the country itself. 
There seems much reason to believe that the word " Madagas- 
car " is not a native name, but is one that has been given it by 
foreigners. There appears to be no Malagasy root in the word, 
and the combination of the consonants sc, or sk, is one not 
allowed by the genius of the language. The island used to be 
termed by the people Izao rehetra izao, " This whole," in accord- 
ance with the belief of many insular nations that their own 
island is the principal part of the world ; and in the time of 
Radama I., and subsequently, it was also described as Ny 
anivon' ny riaka, " The [land] in the midst of the flood." 
According to some accounts, an old designation of the country 
was Nbsin-dambo, " Island of wild-boars," these animals being 
the largest wild creatures of the forests. The only attempt at 
explaining the derivation of the word " Madagascar " which I 
have seen is that given in one of the earliest books upon the 
island, a German work published at Altenbourg, in Meissen, in 
1609, ^^d entitled Beschreibung der Mechtigen und Weitber- 
humbten Insul Madagascar, by Jerome Megiser, in which it is 
affirmed that the African kings of Madagascar and Adel 
conquered the coast region of the island ; that " the inhabitants 
have also been forced to swear to recognise no other for their 
king, and the island also is to be called nothing else but 
This word was afterwards corrupted into Maga- 
9 



Magadaxo. 



114 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

dascar, and at last became Madagascar, which name it kept 
until the Portuguese afterwards gave it another name, as has 
been mentioned before." Whether or not this contains any 
historical fact it is now difficult to decide.^ Besides the names 
for the island already mentioned, this German work also gives 
many others, most of them applied by the Arabic geographers, 
one being " The Island of the Moon " ; they wrote the name 
either Kamar or Komr, the same word which enters into the 
name of the " Comoro " Group, to the north-west of Madagascar. 
These islands are called by the Arabs Komair, or the Lesser 
Komr. The name as applied to the whole island survived until 
the arrival of the Portuguese, for on one of the oldest maps, the 
Charta Marina P ortugalensimn^ of the first decade of the six- 
teenth century, the name Komortina occurs for the island in 
addition to those of Madagascar and San Louren^o. 

Coming now to the place-names in Madagascar, we may first 
look at those of Mountains^ the most prominent and awe-inspiring 
of all natural features, and to which the imagination of simple 
peoples soon affixes descriptive epithets. The interior provinces 
of the island (from which regions almost all these illustrations 
are taken) constitute an extensive elevated mountainous region, 
occupying rather more than a third of the total area of the 

^ The Rev. Canon Isaac Taylor (author of Words and Places') offers the follow- 
ing suggestion as to the meaning of the word : — 

" My guess is that the name Madagascar, which we got from Marco Polo, did 
not apply to the island, but to the Somali coast. He got the name from Malay 
sources. The question is whether Mala-gosse or Mada-gosse is its earlier form ; 
gosse meant ' men ' (=' Bantu ') in the old Swahili. Ma {2) '^ gosse would be 
Ma(^^a-men, the -ar being the Malay suffix in Zanzih-ar, Nicoba-ar, Malab-ar, &c., 
and meaning ' land ' or ' island.' 

" The Hova language is a Malay dialect ; ' Malay ' means ' mountains.' Hence 
Mala-gosc-ar might be ' The land of the (j^^^) men,' while Mada-gasc-ar would 
be ' The island of the Mada or Madai men,' either the present Madai tribe south- 
east of the Victoria Nyanza, or else the land of the coast people in the present 
Somali Land, formerly called Madtin or M'ddain. On this hypothesis. Polo's 
name would apply to the Somali Land. He describes Madagascar as Moham- 
medan and full of elephants, plainly not the island. 

" We have another old form in one of the Polo MSS., Magaster, where the Ma- 
would be the Bantu plural prefix," 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. II5 

country, and raised from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea. This 
hilly region is composed of primary rocks, and the loftiest sum- 
mits are of granite, gneiss, and basalt. It will be seen, however, 
that one prominent descriptive class of names for mountains in 
most countries is wanting in these Malagasy names ; there are 
none denoting the whiteness given by snow. Although the 
liighest points are only a little under 9,000 feet above the 
sea level, this is yet, in that part of the tropics, too low for snow 
to lie ; snow is indeed unknown in Madagascar, and so there are 
no equivalents in its mountain-names for the Snowdon, Ben 
Nevis, Snafells, or Sierra Nevada of Europe, or for the Hormus, 
Lebanon, or Himalayah (" Abode of Snow ") of Asiatic countries. 
It will also be noticed that almost all these mountain-names 
commence with the letters I ox A. The former is merely a 
particle (it might almost be termed an article) which is prefixed 
to denote place-names, as well as tribal and personal names. 
The other letter is part of the preposition and demonstrative 
adverb Any, contracted to An- (changed for euphony to Am- 
before certain consonants), " at," giving a localising sense to the 
word it precedes. Further, it will be also remarked that the 
syllables following An- or Am- are, in a great number of cases, 
bbhi-^ contracted from vbhitra, a word now usually taken as 
meaning a " town," and indeed forming the first part of a vast 
number of Malagasy town-names.^ But as there are quite as 
many mountains as towns having Anibbhi- as the first part of 
their names, it is probable that vohitra originally meant a " hill," 
especially when it is remembered that the root of this word is 
the same as that from which a number of words, such as bbhy, 
bohibbhy bbhitra, Sic, are derived, all of which have the idea of 
" swelling," " puffing," " convexity," and " protuberance." 2 One 
of the grandest mountains in Madagascar, situated near the 

^ Ambohimanga, "At the blue town" ; Ambohidava, "At the long town " ; 
Ambohitrandriana, "At the prince's town;" Ambohimanjaka, "At the kmg's 
town," &c., &c. 

2 I am confirmed in this opinion by seeing that the word used in the Malay 
Peninsula for " hill " is bukif, no doubt the same word as vbhitra.\ 



Il6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

northern extremity of the island, is called Ambohitra and is 
said to be more than 6,000 feet high. The usual word for moun- 
tain, tendrombohitra^ i.e., " point of the town " or " hill," also con- 
firms this ; the old towns in the centre of the island were always 
built for security on the tops of hills, so that the names of hill 
and town seem quite interchangeable.^ 

Before proceeding to point out some of the most interesting 
characteristics of Malagasy place-names, I will venture to trans- 
late a rather long extract from an essay by M. Alfred Grandidier 
on this subject, which forms an appendix to the volume treating 
of the Historical Geography of the island (vol. i.), forming part 
of his monumental work Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique 
de Madagascar (Paris : 1892). M. Grandidier says : 

" At a first glance at a list of Malagasy place-names, one is 
struck by the fact that a larger number, more than half of them, 
commence with the syllable Am or An, which is combined with 
one, two, and sometimes even three words, the sum of which 
very often describes, as we are about to show, some peculiarity 
characteristic of the place. This syllable Am or An is a con- 
traction of the demonstrative adverb Any, which signifies 
where there is, where one is found, near to, upon. The first word 
which comes after this adverb is usually one of the following : 
bbhi, bato, bbdi, ala, kdzo, tana, tsaha, drano, pdsi, bdla, kadi, kdra, 
or ddka, but the most frequent of all these is the first ; about a 
quarter of these place-names in fact begin with Ambohi, which 
is a contraction of Any vohitra, lit, ' Where there is the moun- 
tain which '...,' Where there is the village which ' . . . Then 
come, approximately in the order of frequency : Ambato (from 
Any vdto, lit, 'Where there is a rock which' . . .) ; Ambodi 
(from Any vbdy, lit, 'At the foot of . . .) ; Anala (from Any 
dla, lit., ' Where there is the forest which '...); Ankazo (from 
Any hdzo, lit, 'Where the trees are' . . .) ; Antana (from Any 
tandna, lit., 'Where there is the village which' . . .) ; Antsaha 

^ A hill is havoana, lit a " height. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. II7 

(from Any sdka, lit, ' Where there is the valley, the water-course, 
which' . . .) J Andrano (from Any rdno, lit, 'Where the water 
is' , . .); Ampasi (from Any fdsika [Hova], fdsy or fdsina 
[prov.], lit, 'Where the sand is ' . . .) ; Ambala (from Any vdla, 
lit, ' Where there is an enclosure, a compound '...); Ankadi 
(from Any hddy, lit, 'Where there is a fosse, a trench which' . . .) ; 
Ankara (from Any kdrana, lit, ' Where there is a rock 
which '...); &c. 

"This first syllable Am, An, And, Ant often disappears, and 
in this case the meaning of the name slightly changes ; one may, 
in fact, say indifferently Ambohibe and VOHIBE (which signify 
respectively : At the great mountain, and The great mountain) ; 
Analasora ( Where there is the wood of hedgehogs) and Ala- 
SORA {The wood of hedgehogs) ; Andranomamy {Near the sweet 
water) and Ranomamy {The sweet water) \ Antsahaondry 
{In the valley of sheep) ; Ampasimena {On the red sand) and 
Fasimena {The red sand); Ambalanosy {Where there is an 
enclosure for goats) and Valanosy ( The enclosure for goats) ; 
Ankadivory ( Where there is a circular fosse) and Hadivory 
( The circular fosse) ; Ankaranandriana {Near the rock of the 
noble) and Haranandriana ( The rock of the noble), &c. But 
in the second form of these names, the Malagasy often prefix to 
the word the article denoting a proper name, which is a simple I, 
and they say; IVOHIBE, lALASORA, IfASIMENA, IvALANOSY, 
I haranandriana, &C. 

" Leaving out of consideration, amongst the words which 
commence with any other letter than A, those whose initial 

root is VOHI, VATO, VODI, HAZO, ALA, TANA, SAHA, RANO, FASI, 

VALA, HARA, or IHARA, and which, as we have said, are to some 
extent identical with those which have the prefix, we find that 
the greater number commence with Be- (large, numerous), 
Fara- (the last), Maha- (that which is able to . . ., which is 
proper to . . ., which becomes . . .), Man- (a verbal prefix 
which, joined to the root, forms the verbs), Manjaka- (he who 
reigns, who governs), Maro- (much of . . .), NOSI- (island), 



Il8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Sara- (?), Saro- (by contraction from Sarotra, difficult, 
dangerous, dear), SOA- or TSARA- (beautiful, good, pleasant), 
Tsi (that which is not, or which has not . . .), TsiAFAK- (that 
which cannot be attained by . . . ), ViNAN- (the mouth of a 
river), &c. All these words are often preceded by an I, which 
is, as we have observed, the article denoting a proper name ; 
thus, Imanakana, Inosifito, Ivinanimalaza, are the same names 
as Manakona, Nosifito, Vinanimalaza." 

As might be supposed, the idea of height 2ind prominence is one 
of the most frequently occurring in mountain-names in Mada- 
gascar. Thus we find several called Angavo, " The lofty," and 
one of the grandest mountains in eastern Imerina is Angavokely, 
" LittleAoity',' to distinguish it from the Angavo which forms a 
magnificent tower or outwork, so to speak, of the mountain wall 
on the eastern side of the upper plateau. There is also Avoma- 
sina, the " Sacred-high " (place) ; and one of the loftiest peaks in 
the Vavavato district in southern Imerina is lavohaika, " The- 
lofty-defying-one," a mountain nearly 7,000 feet high. The 
word ambbnj/, " above," also occurs in several names, as Ambo- 
niloha, " Overhead," Ambonivohitra, " Above-the-town" (or hill) ; 
as well as Ibka, "head," in lavoloha, "Lofty-headed," Lohavohitra, 
" Head-of-the-hill " (or town), one of the highest mountains in 
Vonizongo. Asandratra^ "raised," "exalted," forms part of several 
names, as Nasandratany ; as also does arina " set up," " lifted 
up," in such words as Ambohimiarina. There are numerous 
mountain-names in which the root rlngy, meaning " loftiness," 
" conspicuousness," comes in ; thus we find Andringiringy, 
Mahakiringy, and Andringitra, a very prominent ridge fourteen 
miles north of the capital, and closely connected with the old 
idolatry ; a cave in its steep southern slopes being a Malagasy 
Delphi, the former abode of the god Ranakandriana. The same 
meaning of height and eminence is found in Milangana (from 
the root langa, " tall, lofty "), a lofty point north of the old 
capital Ambohimanga. Much the same idea is implied in the 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. II9 

root rhnga " having, the ears erect," a word appHed to animals, 
and found in the name * Andrangaranga.' " The commanding 
position of some eight or ten Imerina hills is implied in their 
name Mahatsmjo, " Able-to-gaze " (from), tsinjo being a word 
meaning to look at distant objects.^ From an almost exactly 
synonymous root, tdzana, comes the name of another mountain, 
Fitazanana, "The Outlook." The sharply-pointed peaks of 
some hills, again, have suggested the idea of a " spur " 2 (Mai. 
fdntsy), which is accordingly given to some of them ; while 
another is called Ambohimaranitra, " Sharp-hill " ; another is 
Antendro, " At-the-point " ; and others are Itsiloabo, " Lofty- 
thorn," and Ivatotsilo, " Thorn-rock." One mountain name, 
Madiotandroka, "Clean-horn," reminds one of the Matterhorn 
and Schreckhorn, &c., of the Alps. 

Height of course involves some degree of mystery and dread^ 
which ideas are accordingly embodied in several mountain- 
names. Thus we find Ambohijanahary, " God's-hill," in several 
districts ; the word Zanahary (Creator) being vaguely applied 
by the Malagasy to many things which they cannot understand ; 
as is also the other word for God, Andriamanitra, as in Andria- 
manitravato, " God's-rock," and Ambohitrandriamanitra, " God's- 
hill " (or town). Of names of this class are Imanondrolanitra 
" Sky-pointing," and Itsiandanitra, " Not-in-the-sky." A moun- 
tain in the Tanala (forest) region is the Malagasy Hades, the 
caves in it being supposed to be the dwellings of departed 
spirits, and is called Iratsy (or Iraty), " The-evil-place." The few 
Europeans who have ascended the peaks of Ankaratra, the 
highest mountain-mass in the island, have described the great 
reluctance of the natives to accompany them, and their terror of 
some supposed malignant influence on those lofty summits. 
Zdvona, " mist," enters into the composition of several mountain- 
names, as Ibezavona, "Much-mist," Ifotsizavona, "Mist-whitened," 

^ A hill from which the Imamo district can be surveyed is called Mahatsinjo- 
imamo, i.e., " Able-to-look-over-Imamo." 

^ Also found in reduplicate form, as Ampantsifantsy. 



I20 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

and Manelozavona, " Mist-shaded" (?), and Tsiafajavona, " Not- 
free- fro m-mist," the name of one of the highest peaks of Anka- 
ratra. Inaccessibility is involved in several other names ; as 
Tsiafabalala, Tsiafakalika, and Tsiafakafo (another Ankaratra 
peak), which three names mean respectively " Impassable by a 
locust," " by a dog," and " by fire." Almost exactly the same 
meaning is giving in the names Tsiazomborona, Tsiazonamboa, 
and Tsiazompapango, which mean " Unattainable by a bird," 
" by a dog," and " by a hawk." The sharp cutting wind of these 
elevated points gives a name to one hill, Sarodrivotra, " Difficult 
(through) wind " ; while the variety of blasts has probably^sug- 
gested another name,|Imarorivotra, " Many- winds." Possibly|the 
howling of the wind round the top gives the name of another 
hill, Ambohimitrena, " Bellowing-hill." 

Somewhat poetical names occur in Ambohijanamasoandro, 
" Hill-of-children-of-the-Sun," in Fonovaratra, " Thunderbolt- 
covering," in Tompombohitra, " Lord-of-the-hills," in Andria- 
nambo, " King-of-the-heights " (or " Kingly-height "), and in 
Malakialina, " Quickly-night," the name of a hill north of Ambo- 
himanga, whose height causes a deep gorge to the east of it to 
be soon in darkness after sundown. 

As height also involves size^ the word be^ " big," is found in 
many names, as Ambohibe and Ivohibe, " Big-mountain," Anta- 
nambe, " Big-town," Mangabe, " Big-blue " (probably referring to 
the colour of the basalt rock), Ivatobe, " Big-rock," and Bongabe, 
" Big-hill." The first part of the last-named word also enters 
into several hill-names ; it means a clod, a turf, and also a round 
hill, so we find Bonga, Bongabe, and Bongakely, i.e.^ hills, big 
and little.i 

It has already been noticed that the primary rocks form most 
of the highest points of Madagascar, and the word vdto (euphoni- 
ously changed after am- to bato\ " stone," is therefore a very fre- 

^ Probably the same idea of rounded convexity comes in, somewhat indelicately 
to our English notions, in Bevohoka, " Pregnant " (lit., " Large-wombed "), and 
Kitroka, " Belly," both names of hills in Imerina. 



I 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 121 

quently occurring one in these mountain-names, and in one 
connection or another forms part of about a fourth of all the 
names of hills in which natural features are referred to. Thus 
we find it in its simplest forms of Ambato and Ivato, and then 
in combination with the words for the colours blue, black, white, 
red, and speckled, as Ambatomanga, Ambatomainty, Ambato- 
fotsy, Ambatomena, and Ambatovandana ; with those for size — 
little, big, and immense, as Ambatokely, Ambatobe, and Amba- 
tovaventy ; and with those for height, length, roundness, steep- 
ness, bareness (lit, " baldness "), and wooded outline (lit, " hairi- 
ness"), as Ambatoavo, Ambatolava, Ambato vory, Ambatomi- 
hantona, Ambatosola,^ and Ambatovaloina. Besides these are 
King's-stones, Prince's-stones, many Famous-stones, as well as 
some Level-topped-stones, Sharply-pointed stones, and Double- 
peaked-stones.2 Some hills which terminate in a solitary 
column of rock, have the same name as that given to the 
memorial erected stones, so common in Central Madagascar, 
Vatolahy (lit, " Male-stone ") ; one with a double-head is called 
Baka, that is, V-shaped, a term applied to the horns of cattle ; 
others, with three points, are the "Three-sisters'-rock" — Ambato- 
telomirahavavy (a hill with a grand mass of rock of this name is 
conspicuous near the eastern edge of Imerina, and looks from 
some points like a Titanic cathedral) ; while others again are 
the " Three-men-rock " (Ambatotelolahy) ; and one is called 
Ambatomandrindry, probably from a root meaning " thickly 
studded," here, of course, with boulder rocks. Others, solitarily 
conspicuous, are called Ambatotokana, " Separated-stone " ; and 
the idea of an upright column gives another name, Mahitsy, 
" Straight " or " Upright " ; and we also find Antanjombato, 
" Rocky promontory." A very remarkable rocky region south- 
west of Ankaratra is termed Vavavato, " Stone-mouth " ; another 
hill is Ambatofidirana, " Entrance-stone," while both in Northern 

^ Also simply as Antsola, " Bald-one." 

- Ambatomanjaka, Ambatonandriana, Ambatomalaza, Ambatomarina, Ambato- 
fisaka, Ambatosampana. 



122 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Imerina and in Southern Betsileo are Varavarambato, " Stone- 
gateway," names given to mountain-passes in those provinces. 
But it would be tedious to particularise all the varied combina- 
tions into which vcito enters in Malagasy mountain-names, the 
more so as many are now obscure in meaning.^ 

Another word for rock, hdrana, is also found in many names 
for hills. Ankarana is the name of the most northerly province 
in the island, and is so called on account of its famous rocky 
fastness (see Antan. Annual, No. III. p. 27) ; and this word is 
probably the root of the word Ankaratra, the name, as already 
mentioned, of the loftiest mountain-mass in Madagascar. We 
also find Haranambe, "Big-rock," Ankarankely, " Little -rock," 
Iharana, Iharanarivo, " Thousand-rocks," Ankaramena, " Red- 
rock," Iharanandriana, " Prince's-rock," Ankaramaina and 
Iharandava, " Dry-rock " and " Long-rock," and several names 
include both the words for stone and rock, as Ambatoharanana. 

While mountain summits in Central Madagascar are usually 
of bare rock, here and there their names show that wood, more 
or less extensive, once covered their heights, and in many names 
ala, "forest," comes into combination. Thus we find lalaroa, 
" Two-woods," Analabe, " Great-wood," Ivohialabe, " Hill-of- 
much-wood," Analamanantona, " Hanging-wood," Analamira- 
viravy, " Overhanging-wood," Analamanara, " Cold-wood," Ana- 
lamahitsy, " Upright- wood," Analambano, " Heron's- wood," 
Analambato, and also Isomotra, " Beard," probably a fanciful 
allusion to woods ; and several others, including words of 
obscure meaning. Hazo, "tree," also occurs in several hill- 
names, as Ankazotokana, " Splitary-tree," Ankazobe, " Big-tree," 
and Ankazomirohitra (perhaps miroh^tra, which would mean 
" a company of trees "). The names of separate trees or grasses 
distinguish other hills, as Amberobe (vero is a long grass), 
Inatobe, " Much-nato," the name of a tree whose bark yields a 
red dye, Ambolobe, " Much-bamboo," Ivoara, " Fig-tree," and 

^ One of the tribal divisions of the Hova Malagasy bears the name of Mandia- 
vato, " Treaders-of-the-rock." 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 23 

Ambiaty, the name of a shrub. Vd7y, " rice," 3.ndfdryy "sugar- 
cane," also occur in the names of three or four hills ; Ambo- 
hibary is a very lofty mountain in S. Betsileo ; and we also 
find Tamponketsa, " Summit-of-rice-ground," and Antsahafary, 
" Sugar-cane-field." The fragrant grasses found in many 
places have suggested names for several hills, the word 
mdnitra, " fragrant," forming parts of the following : Isaha- 
manitra, Ivohimanitra, and Avomanitra. A beautifully wooded 
mountain in the Anativolo ^ district is called Vohilena, " Wet- 
hill " (?), probably from the moisture attracted by its numerous 
trees. 

The generally waterless character of the hills is, however, 
indicated in several of their names, as Andranoritra, " Dried-up- 
water," Fasina, " Sand," Ampasimavo, " Brown-sand," Vovotany, 
" Earth-dust " ; while some others, which have lakes and springs 
as the source of rivers, are called Andranof ito, " Seven-streams," 
Imarorano, " Many-waters," Masinony, " Sacred (or salt) river," 
Farihilava, " Long-lake," and Manjarano, perhaps, " Dun- 
(coloured-)water " (this is also the word for plumbago). One 
hill is called Anivonirano, " In-the-midst-of-waters." 

The pleasant situation and pure air of many hills is recog- 
nized in their names, as Ambohitsara, "Good-" and Ambohi- 
tsarabe, "Exceedingly-good-hill," Ambohitsoa, "Pleasant-hill" (a 
frequent name), Nosifaly, " Joyful-island," Nosisoa,. " Pleasant- 
island," Bemasoandro, " Much-sun," and Tokotanitsara, " Good- 
settlement " ; while the steep ascents and difficulty of climbing 
to their tops are shown in the names of others, as Mahake- 
traka, " Disheartening," and Mahareraka, " Exhausting." The 
deep hddy or fosses with which many hills are scored, and dug 
as defences for the town on the summit, give in various combi- 
nations several names, as Ankadivory, " Circular-fosse," Ankadibe, 
"Big-fosse," Ankadifotsy, "White-fosse," Ihadimanga, "Blue- 
fosse," &c. So also the word vdla, an inclosure, is a part of a 
few hill-names, as Ambalahirana and Ambalafasana, although it 
^ I.e., " Amonsst-the-bamboos." 



124 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

is more strictly and frequently, as might be supposed, a town- 
name. 

From a large number of extinct volcanic cones in the 
interior provinces of Madagascar, extending probably almost in 
an unbroken line from the south to the north and north-west, 
one might suppose that in the names of some of them at least 
we should find some reference to fire or heat. I can, however, 
find only two or three instances where possibly some remem- 
brance of igneous forces is preserved, viz., in Ambatomay, 
" Burnt-rock," and lamboafo, " Lofty-fire," the names of two 
mountains in the Tanala province, and in another named 
Kitroka, a word which means " lava." 

A considerable number of mountains are designated after the 
names oi Animals and Birds. Most numerous are those called 
after the guinea-fowl, akdnga, there being probably at least 
a dozen named Ambatonakanga, " Stone-of-the-guinea-fowl." 
Then come several called after the cock, Ambohitrakoholahy ; 
the large hawk, Ambatomboromahery; the kestrel, Ikitsikitsika; 
the kite, Masiapapango, i.e.^ " Fierce-with-kites " ; the dove, 
Ambohiboromailala ; the cardinal-bird, Ifody ; the peacock, 
Vorombola ; and there is one called " Feather," Volomborona. 
(As already mentioned also in speaking of names denoting 
height, there are numerous hills called " Impassable " by birds 
hawks, kites, &c.) The largest and most valuable animal of the 
country, the humped ox, bmby^ gives names to a good many 
hills ; in its simplest form, Ambohitromby, " Ox-hill," and 
Ambohitrombalahy, " Bull-hill," and in Andraokomby, " Licked- 
up-by-oxen," Antandrokomby, "Ox-horn," Antrafonomby, "Ox- 
hump," and in Ambohimanoto, " Butting-hill." The words for 
sheep (ondry), goat (psy), and wild-hog (Jdmbo), are found in 
several hill-names ; as Ambatonondrilahy, Antsahanondry, 
Ambohitrondry, Ambatonosy, and Lohalambo, " Hog's-head." 
Even the crocodile also appears in these mountain-names, as in 
Mamba, although, as might be supposed, it is more frequently 
found in river-names ; and also the hedgehog, in Ambohitsokina. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 25 

We also find " Many-rats," Marovoalavo ; " Many-fleas," Maro- 
parasy (a rather frequent and uncomfortably appropriate name 
for many villages) ; " Many-ants," Marovitsika ; and two or 
three " Honey-hills," Ambohitantely. 

A smaller number of mountains have received names 
which may almost be termed Personal, and are derived either 
from some renowned king or chief, or have some obscure refer- 
ence to people, their numbers, relationships, &c. Thus we find 
the " mountains " of Ratrimo, Rasomotra, Razaka and Rafilo ; 
the "cattle-fold" (fdhitrd) of Andriamandroso ; and the "hill " of 
the renowned chief who founded the Hova monarchy and 
supremacy, in the unconscionably long name of ^bn^^sictndrian- 
impbinimerina ! The name of the supposed aboriginal tribe of 
the interior is contained in Sodjuazlmba, and that of the Hovas 
in Famohilan/^^z;^. An Oriental exaggeration of numbers comes 
in in Ambohitrarivobe, " Hill-of-many-thousands," and in 
Ambohipoloalina, " Hill-of-ten-ten-thousands " ; we find also 
" People's-hill," " Son-of-men's-hill," " Hill-of-the-old," " Slave's- 
hill," " Prince's-hill," " King's-hill " (in Manjakabe, " Great-king," 
simply) ; and the hills of the " Good-father," the " Grandchild," 
and of " Sacred-chanting " (Ambohimirary). Two or three 
Imerina hills have a strictly personal name, as Ramanarivo and 
Rantoandro. 

A very numerous class of mountain-names I have grouped 
as of doubtful signification, meaning thereby not that the words 
themselves are obscure in meaning, but that the reason for 
giving such names is doubtful. They comprise verbs, adjectives, 
and nouns, and while in some cases an examination of the 
particular hill, or inquiry among the nearest inhabitants, might 
very likely afford some clue to the origin of the name given, in 
many cases the reason is probably hopelessly lost. A few 
examples may now be given ; and of nouns used as names 
we find the following : Anjomba, " Conch-shell," Ambohibola, 
" Money-hill," Amperifery, " Pepper-place," Betongotra, " Big- 
footed," Antemitra, " Matted," Sompitra, " Rice-basket," Vinany 



126 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

" A Guess," Ambilany, " At-the-pot," Ambohimizana, " Money- 
scales-hill," Ankafotra, " At-the-hafotra " (tree), Laona, " Rice- 
mortar," &c. 

Of adjectives employed as hill-names there are only a few, 
as Mangidy, " Bitter," Mora, " Easy," and Maneva, " Beautiful " ; 
but a large number of verbs are used as hill-names ; e.g., 
Ambohitsimioza, " Not-bathing-hill," Manana, " Having," Ambo- 
himanahy, " Disquieting-hill," Ambohimanoa, " Tribute-paying- 
hill," Ambohimahalala, " Knowing-hill," Mahasarotra, " Making- 
difficult," Ambohimandray, " Receiving- hill," Ambohitsileo, 
" Unconquered hill," Manadala, " Making-foolish," Manalalondo, 
(perhaps) " Throwing-off-drowsiness," and Mahasoa, " Benefit- 
ing." A curious name occurs in Mantsihoaiza, which is, 
literally, "Say, where to?" 

It will be thus seen from these examples, from a few groups 
of Madagascar mountain-names, chiefly taken in the centre of 
the island, that there is much variety in them ; and that some 
of them give evidence of considerable imaginative power on 
the part of the early inhabitants of the country. I do not 
here attempt to speculate on the facts possibly embodied 
(fossilised, so to speak) in another large group of names whose 
meanings are obscure, and which may probably in some cases 
prove to be archaic words, and may in others preserve obsolete 
forms of the verbs and other parts of speech. 

The i?2V^r-names in Madagascar next claim a little notice, 
although they are less striking in their descriptive character 
than we have seen the hill-names to be. A glance at a map 
of the island shows that the largest rivers flow to the west, 
the water-shed being comparatively near the eastern coast, so 
that, except the Mangoro, few very large rivers flow into the 
Indian Ocean ; but there are a great number of small streams, 
many of which have cut deep gorges in the chains of hills, and 
are broken by numerous cataracts and falls. Two words are 
used for " river " in Malagasy : renirctno^ which is literally 
" mother of waters," and buy, a word which, it will be seen, is 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 12/ 

frequently combined with others in forming river-names. (This 
latter word is Malayan in origin, and is the same as the Malayan 
sugnie^ a river; s being in both languages a very loose noun 
prefix ; u is the Malagasy o ; and the coast n is nasal and equal 
to gn^ 

Descriptive epithets of natural features are of course found 
in a good many river-names, as in Onibe and Onive, " Big- 
river," Andranobe, " Much-water," Lempona, " Concave " or 
" Hollow," Ampontany, " In-the-heart-of-the-land," Ampiva- 
lanana, " At -the -descending " (water), and Andranomavo, 
" Brown - water." We also find Onimainty and Onifotsy, 
"Black-river" and "White-river," Onilahy, "Male-river," and 
Imaintinandro, " Black-by- the-day " (?). The power of some 
small streams when swelled by sudden and heavy rain is 
noticed in such names as Kelimahery, " Little-(but) strong," 
Kelilalina, " Little-(but) deep " ; the difficulty of fording them 
in Fitamalaina, " Unwilling-ford " ; the noisy character of some, 
in Andriamamovoka, "Dust-raising-prince" (probably alluding 
to the spray or mist caused by the rapids or falls) ; the broken 
channels of others in Imanandriana, " Having-cataracts," while 
another bears the ominous name of Matiandrano, i.e. 
" Drowned." The largest river in Madagascar is the Mania, 
a word meaning "To go astray," and called in the lower 
portion of its course Tsiribihina, i.e. " The unfordable," so it 
is said, but probably meaning " The impassable." Of this 
river Capt. Larsen, of the Norwegian mission-ship, says he 
believes that it brings down more fresh water than the 
Ganges ; at its mouth the sea is fresh three miles from land. 
The meaning of Betsiboka, the large river flowing from Imerina 
to the north-west, is " Much-fresh-water," as its waters are still 
potable at a mile's distance from its outlet. 

The names of Animals are applied to a few Madagascar 
rivers, as in Mamba, " Crocodile " (almost every river swarms 
with these reptiles), Ombifotsy, "White-ox," Amborompotsy, 
" At-the-White-bird " (an egret), Antanandambo, " Wild-hog's- 



128 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

foot" (lit, "hand"), Sahalambo, "Wild-hog's-field," and Sahan- 
amalona, "Eel's-field." This word sciha, "field," is found in 
some other river-names, as Sahasarotra, " Difficult-field," Saha- 
omby, "Spacious-(?) field," or perhaps "Ox-field," and Isahanonja, 
"The-field- (or place) of-waves"; also Sahafilo,j^/<9=" needle," 
or possibly _/f/<«^, name of a fish. 

Ambato, " At-the-stone," is found in several river-names, as 
well as in those (as already seen) of mountains and towns ; 
in these cases it probably refers to some hill or rock where the 
stream takes its rise or near which it flows, or possibly from 
its rock-impeded channel. Thus we find, Ambatolampy, " At- 
the-rock," Ambatomiady, " At -the -fighting -stone," Ambato- 
mainty, " At-the-black-stone," and Ambatotsipahina, " At-the- 
kicked-stone " (probably with some reference to giant legends). 
One river is called Ankazotsipihina, " At-the-ruled-(or straight- 
ened) tree," another is called Fantara, a name also given to 
meteoric stones, and another is Varahina, " Copper." 

As with mountains, so also a few rivers have names referring 
to persons ; two or three have the personal prefix Andrian-, as 
Andriambilany, and Andriamenakely, " Prince-of-the-estate." 
One is curiously called Ikotoratsy, "Bad-boy," another, Zana- 
kolona, " Son-of-men," and another, Andranonandriana, " At-the- 
prince's-stream." 

It must be said, however, that the above examples include 
(excepting the Mania and the Onilahy) few of the largest 
streams of the island, such as the Betsib6ka,i with the Ikiopa, 
the Mangoro, the Matsiatra, the Sofia, the Mananara, and 
Mananjara^ (there are several examples of these two names), 
the Mahajilo,3 the Sisaony, and many others, the meaning of 
whose names is obscure. We probably need a fuller acquaint- 
ance with dialects other than the Hova to understand many 
of the names applied to rivers. In the name of the Matitinana, 
i.e. " Dead-handed," a S.E. coast river, a piece of legendary 

^ Lit., " Many-not-lepers." ^ Lit., " Having-a-share." 

3 Jilo is *' sharp-pointed." 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 29 

history of a giant having thrown his hand across the stream 
at an enemy, is said to be preserved ; but it is probable that 
the story has been invented to account for the name, In some 
portions of the east coast of Madagascar the names of tribes 
and of the rivers flowing through the territory are identical, 
and it is often difficult to say whether the people took their 
name from the river, or vice versa. Curious superstitions cling 
to some of the rivers, e.g.^ of the Matsiatra in Betsileo, 
Mr. Shaw says, it is " a splendid river, though on account of 
the superstition of the people deterring them from putting 
a canoe upon it, it is one of the greatest obstacles in travelling 
to and from the capital in the wet season. In one itinerating 
journey, the only way of getting the writer's goods across 
was by balancing them upon the native water -pitchers, a 
man swimming on each side propelling the cranky vessel 
forward." 

The Lake-xvdimes in Madagascar will not detain us long, as 
they are very few in number for so large an island. The largest 
one, of Alaotra, in the Antsihanaka province, has already been 
mentioned as probably embodying one of the few Arabic words 
in Malagasy place-names. (It will be remembered that the 
allied word " Laut " is largely used for " island," i.e., " sea- 
surrounded," in the Malayan archipelago ; as Timor Laut, &c.) 
The next in size is Itasy, whose name at first sight would mean 
"shallow," the word tasy being applied chiefly to plates and 
dishes. It is said that this lake is of recent formation, at least 
tradition goes back to a time when it is said to have been 
formed by the breaking down of some embankment by a 
Vazimba chieftain. As, however, a considerable stream, which 
in the rainy season forms a grand waterfall, always issues from 
Itasy and forms the river Lilia (a word of unknown meaning, 
to myself, at least), this seems a little mythical. In a map 
of the lake made by Mr. W. Johnson (see Antananarivo 
Annual, No. I., 1875), every bay and division of it has a 
separate name applied to it, a proof of the minute distinction 

10 



130 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

by the Malagasy of places by giving appropriate names.^ The 
full name of the lake is Itasi-hanaka, the latter word being 
a root signifying " to run out as a liquid," as ink on blotting- 
paper, for example ; the word is also used as a synonym for 
others meaning lake, pool, 8z:c., but is not much employed. 
This word is also found in the name of a northern central 
tribe, the Sihanaka, probably from the character of the country 
they inhabit, with extensive marshes, and the lake Alaotra, 
just mentioned, in its north-east corner. It is worth notice 
that the word tctsy is found in several of the Malayan island 
dialects, and there means "sea." A lake in the province of 
Pahang in the Malay peninsula is called Tassek Bera, evi- 
dently the same word as in the Malagasy. A small lake 
south-west of Ankaratra is called Vinaniony ; vinany is a 
word frequently used on the east coast for a river-opening 
through the bars of sand which partly block up the mouths 
of most of them, and means "breach," "irruption." On the 
south-west coast are two lakes called Heotry (or Hoetry) and 
Tsimanampetsotse, but the meaning of neither of them is clear. 
On the eastern coast of Madagascar is a remarkable chain 
of coast lakes or lagoons, into which the rivers fall. These 
have doubtless been formed by the incessant strife between 
the rivers and the ocean, for there is a constant heavy surf 
raised by the south-east trade-wind. So nearly continuous 
are these lagoons that by cutting about thirty miles of canal 
to connect them, an unbroken water-way of two hundred and 
sixty miles in length could be formed along the eastern coast. 
These lagoons are distinguished by separate names, as Nosibe, 
I rangy, Rasoabe, &c. 

There are two or three examples of small but profoundly 
deep lakes formed in the extinct craters of some of the old 

^ These are: (i) Tarazo, "Hereditary" (?) ; (2) Ampefy, " At-the-embank- 
ment " ; (3) Kavanta, possibly " Opening," as this is the point where the river 
issues from the lake ; (4) Ambavanandriana, " At-the-prince's-mouth, or opening," 
a strait between broad reaches ; (5) Loholoka, meaning doubtful ; (6) Anjiva, 
ditto ; (7) Fitandambo, " Wild-hog's-ford." 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. I3I 

volcanoes. One of these, Tritriva, is said to be unfathomable, 
and is the traditional abode of the Fanany, a seven-headed 
dragon or monster, about which marvellous stories are told 
{see Chapter V.). 

We now turn to the last division of the subject, that of 
the names applied to Towns and Villages in Madagascar. 

Before giving a few examples of these under the different 
classes into which the mountain-names have been divided, there 
are two or three points which should be kept in mind in con- 
sidering town and village names found among the Malagasy. 
The first of these is the fact already mentioned in speaking 
of the hill-names, viz., that on account of the ancient practice 
of the interior tribes of building their villages on the summits 
of hills and mountains, in very many cases it is impossible 
to distinguish exactly between what are strictly the names 
of hills and what are those of the villages. It is possible, 
therefore, that some of the examples already given of moun- 
tain-names may be names really applied to the settlements 
formed on their slopes or loftiest points ; while, on the other 
hand, it may be the case that some of the town or village 
names to be presently mentioned are really those of the hills 
on which they are built. 

Another point which should be borne in mind is, that while 
in the central and eastern provinces the population has a stable, 
settled character, having remained probably for centuries in 
many of the towns or villages originally founded by their 
ancestors on their first occupation of the country; those on 
the western side, on the contrary, the Sakalava tribes, are 
much more nomadic in their habits. They do not practise 
agriculture so much as the other peoples ; rice, which in the 
wet method of culture, as followed by the Hova and Betsileo 
and east-coast tribes, requires a good deal of earth -work, 
embankments, aqueducts, &c., is little used by them ; and they 
are more exclusively pastoral, keeping large herds of cattle. 
Besides this, their superstitious fear of death, or rather of some 



132 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

malign influence exerted by the spirits of the departed, leads 
them, it is said, to break up their villages when a death occurs, 
so that their settlements must be more like camps than villages, 
properly so called. The Sihanaka have the same superstition, 
but they avoid most of the inconvenience by removing any 
one who appears dangerously ill out of the village and placing 
him in a hastily-constructed hut, which is afterwards pulled 
down and left to decay. We shall therefore probably find little 
of interest in the village-names of the Sakalava. There is, how- 
ever, this noticeable point in the principal names, whether of 
towns or geographical features, all round the island, that the 
majority of them are distinctly recognisable as containing roots 
which are Malagasy as spoken by the Hova, and thus they 
confirm the fact, supported also on other grounds, of the 
essential unity of the Malagasy language, notwithstanding 
various dialectic differences. 

One more point may be here mentioned, viz., that in many 
places there occurs a rather perplexing duality of names, 
arising from the fact that the Hova, when forming military 
posts for the maintenance of their supremacy over various 
parts of the island which they have conquered, have generally 
given them a name differing from that of the native village 
on the same site or close to it. These latter usually retain the 
original appellation, so that sometimes a stranger is puzzled 
to understand where he his going, or what place the people 
are speaking about. 

A word or two may be said first about the capital and chief 
towns of Madagascar, before proceeding to classify the smaller 
towns and villages according to the divisions already observed 
in other place-names. The name of Antananarivo, the capital 
city, signifies, somewhat in an Oriental vein of exaggeration, 
" City of a Thousand," that is, probably, settlers or military 
colonists, who were placed there after its conquest by the Hova 
chieftains. Some have considered the name as referring rather 
to the homesteads or compounds, which clustered probably for 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 33 

a long time as detached settlements round the slopes of the 
long steep ridge on which the city is built. There are no street- 
names in the city, indeed there are only three or four streets 
or principal roads through the dense mass of houses, but the 
position of most houses is ascertained tolerably exactly by 
the numerous names which are given to different portions of 
the varied and broken ground over which the capital extends, 
every prominent hollow or slope or level portion having some 
special and often very appropriate name. Thus we find Faravo- 
hitra, " Last- village " (or hill), at the northern extremity, and 
Ambohipotsy, " White-hill," from the white soil of that part, at 
the southern end of the ridge ; while Ambohimitsimbina, " Hill- 
of-observation " (or attention), is the highest point. Then there 
is Antsahatsiroa, " Not-two-fields " or valleys, a steep descent 
near the centre ; the precipices of Ampamarinana, " Hurling- 
place," the Tarpeian Rock of the capital, on the west side of the 
hill ; the open triangular space of Andohalo, the coronation 
ground and place of public assemblies, on the upper part of 
the city ; and the level square plain of Imahamasina, " Place- 
of-consecration," at the foot of the hill to the west, where 
military reviews take place and where some of the sovereigns 
were publicly recognised by their subjects. Near this is Anosy, 
" At-the-island," an artificial lake with a small island in the 
centre. (Each royal house has its proper name, as Manja- 
kamiadana, " Reigning-peacefully," Trano-vola, " Silver-house," 
Masoandro, " Sun," Manampisoa, " Adding-good," &c.) In other 
parts of the city are Ambohitantely, " Hill-of-honey," Ambato- 
nakanga, " Guinea-fowl-stone," Amparibe, " Much-sugar-cane," 
Analakely, " Little-wood," Zoma, " Friday," the great market- 
place, so called because the market is held on that day, Sz:c., &c. 
South-west of the city is a large timber palace which was built 
by Radama I. on the site of a hill which he partly levelled, and 
called Isoanierana, " Good-for-inquiry," or consultation, Le,, a 
convenient place where he might hear complaints and dispense 
j ustice. To the east of the capital is Ambatoroka, " Craggy-rocks," 



134 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

a rough piece of ground covered with boulders, and a former 
place of execution ; further south is Mah^zoarivo, " Having-a- 
thousand " ; while to the west is a rounded hill called Amho- 
hijanahary, " God's-hill " ; and stretching for many miles west, 
north, and south is the immense rice-plain of Betsimitatatra, 
" Great-undivided," a name evidently given before its enclosure 
and cultivation, for it is now /much divided by tatatra or water- 
channels. 

Amb6himinga, " Blue-hill " or " Famous-hill " (or town), is the 
ancient capital, eleven miles north of Antananarivo, and possibly 
so called from the mass of bluish gneiss rock which forms the 
highest point of the triangular hill on which the town is built. 
The slopes are entirely covered with woods, which form a 
refreshing contrast to the generally bare and treeless character 
of the greater portion of Imerina. As at Antananarivo, various 
parts of the more ancient capital are distinguished by special 
names, as Amboara, " The fig-tree " (vodra), Ambatomitsangana, 
" The standing-stone," Antsahamanitra, " The fragrant-field," 
Andakana, " At-the-canoe," &c. Ambohimanga is also the 
name of the chief town of the northern Tanala, or forest 
people, and is given to some other towns as well, both in this 
form and in that of Ambohimangakely {k^y — little). The 
capital of the Betsil^o province has a name probably given 
by the Hova on their conquest of the country — Fianarantsoa, 
" Good-learning " ; it is a town with about 6,000 or 7,000 
inhabitants. 

The chief port of the N.W. coast of Madagascar, the town 
of Mojanga (incorrectly called by Europeans and on charts 
Majunga), derives its name from " a colony of Swahili-speaking 
Arabs, who were the first occupants of the site. They found, 
so say their descendants, the shore lined with flowering shrubs, 
which, as the most remarkable thing about the place, led them 
to call their village mji-angaia^ * the town of flowers.' " This 
was subsequently corrupted to Mojanga. The Bay of Bemba^ 
tooka takes its name from a small village formerly existing on 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 35 

its shores, and called Fombitoka ^=fbinby tbkana, " One-rofia- 
palm," and corrupted by foreigners into Bembatooka.^ 

Turning now to the names of Towns and Villages generally, 
we find, as with those of the mountains, that natural features 
have frequently suggested their appellations. As already 
noticed, the building of all ancient towns of the interior on 
the summit of hills has made it difficult, if not impossible in 
many cases, to be sure whether the name given to a town on 
a hill is not more strictly that of the hill itself So that, as 
with mountain-names, we also find the ideas of " height " in a 
few town-names ; as Avomalaza and Avomanitra {d,vo, " high "), 
Ambodinambo, " At-the-foot-of-height," Amb6nil6ha, " Upon- 
the-head " ; that of " ascending " in Fiakarana and lak^randsy, 
" Goat's-ascent " ; and that of " lifting up " in Ambohimiarina, 
Man^rinarina, &c. The two words for rock, vd,to and hdrana^ 
form frequent combinations in village-names from the presence 
of bold rocks and precipices near many of the places thus 
named ; as Ivato, Ivatov^vy, " Women's-stone " (probably from 
there being near to it one of the stones resorted to and anointed 
by women, from a belief in its virtue to give them children), 
Ambatosoa, Amb6divato, " At-the-bottom-of-the-rock," Ant6n- 
gombato, " At-the-foot-of-the-rock," Ivatofotsy and Ambatof6tsy, 
" At-the- white-rock," Ivatolavo, Ambatoflsaka, Ambatotokana, 
" At - the - solitary-rock," Amparafaravato, "At - the - stone - bed - 
stead " ; this is one of the three Malagasy towns to which 
entrance is forbidden to Europeans by an article in the 1865 
treaty, since they were then the seats of the chief idols. In the 
Sihanaka province is a town called Amparafaravola, " At-the- 
silver-bedstead," and there are several Ambatomalaza, " Famous- 
stones." Then there are found Iharana, Ankaranila, Ankara- 
malaza, and Ankaratsinanana. The colour of the soil also gives 
frequent names, as Antanifotsy, "White-earth," Ambohipotsy, 
" At-the-white-hill," Ankadifotsy, " At-the-white-fosse," Ampasi- 

^ See paper by W. C. Pickersgill, Esq., in L.M.S. Missionary Chronicle, Oct. 
1882, p. 323 ; and Antananarivo Annual, No. XIL, 1888. 



136 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

mena, " At-the-red-sand," Ivohimena, " Red-hill," &c. We also 
find Ambohidroa, " Two-towns," and I fitobohitra, "Seven-towns." 

Trees and woods give many town-names, as Ambolobe, 
"Much-bamboo," Anakakondro, " At -the -plantain -shoots," 
Ambodirofia, " At-the-foot-of-the-rofia " (palm), Antapiabe, 
" Much-tapza " (a tree with edible fruit, and used for silkworm 
culture), Ampangabe, " Much-fern," Ivohidroy, " Bramble-town," 
Amboatavo, " At-the-gourds," Ankazomasina, " At-the-sacred- 
tree," lalamalaza, " Famous- wood," Analamaizina, " At-the-dark- 
wood," Ambaniala, " Below-the-wood," Beravina, " Much-foliage," 
Tamponala, " Top-of-the-wood," &c. The pleasant situation of 
many villages gives appropriate names to not a few of them, 
which contain the words ^sdra (good) and soa (pleasant), the 
latter of which is especially frequent, as Antanantsara, Ambo- 
hitsara, Itsarafidy, "Well-chosen," Itsarahonenana, "Good-for- 
dwelling-in," Ambohitsoa, Ambatosoa, Ambalasoa, Antsahasoa, 
Ikianjasoa, Isoaririnina, " Pleasant-in-winter," and Soamonina, 
" Pleasant-to-dwell-in." The latter word also comes in frequently 
in villages called Soavina and Soamanana ; one is termed Soa- 
tsimanampiovana, " Unchangeably-pleasant," and the same idea 
of security is expressed in Fiadanana, " Peace," and Mahavelona, 
" Causing-to-live." ^ The open position of many villages, 
exposed to sunlight, gives a name to several ; as, Masoandro, 
Bemasoandro, " Much-sun," and Ambohibemasoandro ; and the 
extensive prospect from others gives their names of Mahatsinjo, 
" Able-to-overlook," and Tsinjoarivo, " Overlooking-a-thousand." 

New settlements, now probably very ancient (like our own 
Newports and Newcastles), have left their traces in Ambohibao, 
"Newtown," a very common village name in Imerina ; in Antoby, 
" At-the-camp," and Andranovao, " At-the-new-house " (?) ; while 
the advance of settlers upon ground previously unoccupied 
seems to have given a name to the many places called Ambo- 
himandroso, " Progressing-town," and Mandrosoa, "Advance" 

^ I remember this name, a rather common one, is that of one of the filthiest 
villages I ever stayed a night in ; the whole place being a foot deep in cowdung. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 13/ 

(verb imp.). Many village-names include the Malagasy equiva- 
lents for our Anglo-Saxon words ton^ ham^ burgh, bury, &c., and 
the Danish by and thorpe, in the words vcila, " a homestead," as 
Ambalavotaka, Ambalatany, Ambalavola, Ambalasakay, and 
Ambala, &c. ; in hady, " a fosse," one at least of which surrounds 
every old village (and homestead), and very frequently several 
deep trenches are found one within the other ; as Ankadibe, 
Ankadisarotra, Ankadimainty, Ankadifotsy, Ambodihady, and 
Ankadiv6rib6, " Big-round-fosse " (the ordinary name for a 
country house is hddivbry) ; and in sdha, " field," as Antsahape- 
traka, Antsahafilo, Antsaharoaloha, " Two-headed-field," Isaha- 
fary, "Sugar-cane-field," and Isahabato, " Stony-field," &c. There 
are a very few village-names referring to roads, or rather paths, 
as Antsampanimahazo, freely translated, " You may choose your 
path," applied to two or three places at the junction of cross- 
roads ; another bears the (probably often too appropriate) name 
of Ampotaka, " In-the-mud." 

From the situation of many Malagasy villages on the banks 
of rivers are derived several descriptive names, as Antsam- 
pandrano, " At-the-branching-of-the-waters," Ambodiriana and 
Amboniriana, " At-the-foot-of- " and " Upon-the-cataract," Ifara- 
hantsana, " Last-rapids " (on the river Ikiopa), Isarahanony, 
(perhaps) " At-the-separating-of-the-streams," Andranomandry, 
"By-still- waters," Amparihy, " At-the-lake," Andohatanjona, " At- 
the-head-of-the-promontory," and Imavorano, " Brown- water " ; 
while we find an exact equivalent of " Oxford " in Ampitanomby, 
and an approach to " Cambridge " in Tetezambato, " Stone- 
bridge." One name seems to complain of a lack of moisture, 
Itsimisirano, " There's-no-water ! " On the sea-coast several 
village-names include the word vindny, "river-mouth," as Ivinany, 
Vinaniony, &c., and also Masondrano, a word of similar meaning, 
found both in this form and in that of Masondranokely. 

A considerable number of village-names include the word 
nosy, which is generally translated " island " ; it appears, how- 
ever, in many cases to mean, more exactly, a rising ground 



138 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

standing up from marshes and rice-fields, and more or less sur- 
rounded by them, a very near parallel to our Anglo-Saxon ea 
or ey, " an island," as in the names Chelsea, Thorney, Putney, 
Chertsey, &c.i Thus we find Nosivato, " Rocky-island," Nosi- 
manjaka, " King's-island," Nosisoa, Nosivola, Nosipatrana, 
Nosikely, Anosivarika, N6sizato, " Hundred-isles," N6siarivo, 
" Thousand-isles," and, simply. Nosy or An6sy. 

In the central district of Imerina a number of village-names 
include that of the province, with some additional descriptive 
word ; these are probably, in some cases at least, memorials of 
certain additions of territory or change of boundary ; thus we 
find Imerimandroso, Imerinavaratra, Im^rintsiadino, Soavini- 
merina, and Im^rinarlvo. The western division of Imerina, the 
Imamo district, also gives a name to a few villages, as Arlvoni- 
mamo and Tsinjovinimamo. The habit of the central Malagasy 
of assembling at large open-air markets for the sale and pur- 
chase of every kind of native product gives a name to many 
villages near such markets, according to the days of the week 
on which they are held. So we find numerous places called 
Alahady (although markets are no longer held on Sunday in 
the central provinces), Alatsinainy, Talata, Alarobla, Alakamisy, 
Zoma, and Asabotsy. 

As with mountain-names, so also in those of some towns and 
villages, the words for various animals enter into their formation ; 
the words mdmba and voay, " crocodile," dlnta^ " leech," amboa^ 
" dog," bsy, " godit" fbza, " crab," hdla, " spider," and many others, 
all occurring ; thus, Mambazato, " Hundred-crocodiles " (no 
exaggeration this in numberless places) ; less definite, but very 
suggestive, is Marovoay, " Many-crocodiles," a Hova post and 
Arab settlement near the mouth of the Betsiboka river ; Masom- 
boay, Antsahadinta, Amboatany, Ambohitrosy, Antsahamaro- 
foza, and Antohokala. Most frequent are those compounded 
with bmbyy " ox," as Mamiomby, " Sweet-to-oxen," probably 
referring to good pastures (Soaronono, " Good-(for) milk," is 

* Cf. Words and Places, p. 367 et seq. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 39 

probably of similar meaning to the foregoing), Antandrok6mby, 
" Ox-horn," Lohaomby, " Ox-head," Ambohitromby, " Ox-town," 
and Ambositra,! " At-the-ox " (or oxen). Fdhitra, the word for 
the sunken pen or fold in which cattle are kept and fattened, 
enters into many village-names, especially places where these 
fdhitra were numerous or of great size, or made by some famous 
chief of former times ; thus, Ampahitra, Ampahitrizana, Ambo- 
difahitra, Ampahimanga, &c. Here we have a similar use of the 
word to that in our English place-ending by or byr (cf Scot. 
byre^ " a cow-stall "). A few villages take their name from some 
prominent or numerous tree or plant growing plentifully near it, 
as Amboatavo, "At-the-gourds," Amb6asary," At-the-lemons," &c. 
The most common village-names of the class already 
grouped as personal are those derived from chieftainship, fre- 
quently including the words manjdka^ sovereign, and andriana^ 
prince, noble; and our English Kingstowns, Kingstons, and 
Princetons find a Malagasy parallel in numerous places called 
Amb6himanjaka, Ambohitrinimanjaka, Ambatomanjaka, Man- 
jakanandriana, Miadamanjaka, " Reigning-peacefully," Ambohi- 
trandriana, Ambatonandriana, and Iharanandriana ; some of 
these being probably the chiefs village in earlier times. Of some- 
what similar meaning is Ikianjamalaza, " Famous-courtyard," 
and Ikianjasoa ; while the principal village of a former petty 
state, often a very little place, is remembered in many an 
Ambohibe and Iv6hib6, " Big-village," and in frequent Antan- 
amalaza and Ambohimalaza, " Famous-towns " and " villages." 
We also find Ambohitompo, " Lord's-town," and Ambalampi- 
tsara, " Judge's-homestead." Other villages preserve the name 
of a former famous king or chieftain, as Ambohidrabiby,^ 



^ Vdsitra is the ox, strictly so called ; omby being a wider word for cattle 
generally ; hence bmhilahy, " a bull," zanakomby, " a calf," &c. 

= Rabiby was an early king in Imerina, who is said to have slain an enor- 
mous wild-boar ; and he is also remembered as the first who discovered that beef 
was good to eat. This tradition is probably true so far as it recalls an early 
period when the ox was considered a sacred animal, and its flesh was only eaten 
as part of a religious service. 



I40 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Ambohidratrimo, Ambohidrapeto,^ Ambohidratamo, Ambohi- 
dramijay, and Ambatondrazaka.^ 

Some tribal divisions or boundaries are probably preserved 
in the many village-names which include the word arlvo, " thou- 
sand," zdto, "hundred," dindfblo, "ten," as, Ivohitrarivo, Ambo- 
hipoloarivo (10,000), Soavinarivo, Iharinarivo, Ambohijato and 
Ambijato, and Ampolo. Tribal names are given to some 
villages, which were formerly perhaps their chief settlement ; 
as, Anjanadralambo (the Zanadralambo are the sixth and 
lowest rank of andriana, the noble or royal clans ; Ralambo, 
their ancestor, was the same as the Rabiby just mentioned, and 
was so called from his slaying the wild-boar or lambd) ; and 
Ampahidralambo, " Ralambo's-ox-fattening pit" ; and Ambodila- 
langina (the Lalangina are the easternmost division of the 
Betsileo people). Bits of local and tribal or family history are 
probably fossilised in such names as Itelolahy, " Three-men," 
Ivohidraivo, " Raivo's-town," Imarovavy, " Many- women," 
" Imarozaza, "Many-children," Fierenana, "Dividing-place," 
Fierena, " Refuge," Isoanierana, " Good-for-inquiry " (an open- 
air court), Ampihaonana, " Meeting-place," Ambohidray, 
" Father's-village," Ambohijato vo, " Youth's-village," Ambohi- 
janaka, " Children's-village," Ifenovahoaka, " Full-of-people,* 
Tsarahavana, " Good-(by) relations," Itsiazombazaha, " Not- 
taken-by-foreigners," &c., &c. Old sacred places and shrines 
are indicated by many an Ambohimasina and Ambatomasina, 
{masina, sacred), and perhaps in Ambohijanahary and Am- 
bohitrandriamanitra, " Creator's-" and " God's-town." Sacred 
and venerated trees {hdzo) also give a few village names, 
as Ankazomasina and Ankazobe. 

About the other two divisions in which Malagasy town and 
village names may be classed, viz., those of " doubtful " or 
"obscure" meaning, it is unnecessary to speak here, for the 
reasons given in speaking of the names of mountains and rivers. 

^ Rapeto is said to have been a giant, and to have performed marvellous feats 
of strength. =^ The chief town of the Sihanaka province. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. I41 

Some local allusions, obvious enough on the spot, would pro- 
bably explain many of the first class of names ; while fuller 
knowledge of old and obsolete or provincial Malagasy, and 
careful inquiry among the natives, will be required to elucidate 
the meaning of many of the second of these classes. 

Before concluding, a few words must be added upon one 
other class of Malagasy place-names yet unnoticed, viz., those 
of Provinces and Districts. Here, however, a difficulty occurs 
in distinguishing many of them from those of the tribes who 
inhabit these various regions ; since in many cases it is difficult 
to say whether the people take their name from the country 
they live in, or whether the country is called after the people. 
So that here the study of place-names is almost inseparable 
from that of personal, or rather, tribal, names. In other cases, 
as on the coast plains, river-names and tribal-names are equally 
difficult of exact discrimination, that is, as regards the priority 
of the two. These points cannot be now fully discussed, but a 
few examples may be given. 

The meaning of the name of the central and leading pro- 
vince of Imerina is obscure (to myself at least) ; the district is 
also occasionally termed Ankova, from its Hova inhabitants. 
Among the subdivisions of Imerina are Vakinankaratra, the 
district " Cut-off-(lit. " broken-") by-Ankaratra " (mountains), 
Vakintsisaony, " Cut-off-by-(the river) Sisaony,*' Imamo, Voni- 
zongo, Valalafotsy, " White-locusts ' a (tribal name), and to the 
north, Avaradrano, " North-of-the-water," Anativolo, " Among- 
the-bamboos," &c. But the smaller district names are very 
numerous, and would require a separate article for their full 
treatment. 

South of Vakinankaratra is the Manandriana district, the 
northernmost division of the populous Betsileo province, home 
of the " Unconquered " tribe (so named, although they have 
been overcome by the dominant Hova) ; with the other sub- 
divisions of I Sandra, so called from the river flowing through its 
centre, and this, again, traditionally said to be named after a 



142 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Hova, one Andriantsandra ; Ilalangma (literally, " Quiet-road," 
but there is probably some other meaning) ; and larindrano 
"There-is- water," ^ probably from the numerous streams. Further 
south still is the Bara country. In this province, with its 
widely scattered population, there appears to be necessarily a 
good deal of change in its place-names, since the numerous 
petty kingdoms or chieftaincies are, like many African king- 
doms,2 called after the names of the reigning chief 

On the eastern side of the island, beginning at the northern 
point, is the Ankarana, " the Rocky " province, possibly taking 
its name from a remarkable rock fortress where the inhabitants 
have often held their own against an invading force. 3 Coming 
south, are the districts of Vohimarina, " Level-hill," the promon- 
tory sheltering Antongil Bay and called Maroa (in Hova this 
w^ord is an imperative form meaning " Be many," it is said to be 
so called from a small river of the same name, possibly thus 
named from its sudden increase in the heavy rains of the wet 
season) ; and south of this, again, are a number of districts, 
some called after the principal town in them, some after 
the chief river, and inhabited by numerous tribes generally 
termed " Betsimisaraka, the " Many-unseparated." Inland 
from these is the Betanimena country, " Much-red-earth," while 
the great marsh district — the Malagasy fen-country — around, 
but chiefly south of the chief lake, Alaotra, is called Antsi- 
hanaka, the " Lake-people's-district." South of this is the 
long open plain between the two eastern lines of forest, and 
called Ankay, the " Clearing," from its comparative absence 
of wood. Its inhabitants are called the Antankay, and also 
the Bezanozano, "Bush people." The south-eastern forest 
region is called the Tanala country, " home of the Foresters." 
East of this again, on the coast plains south of the Betsi- 
misaraka district, are the regions occupied by the Taimoro 

^ See Rev. G. A. Shaw's paper, "The Betsileo Country and People," 
Antananarivo Annual, No. III. pp. 74, 76. 

^ E.g., Urambo, after Mirambo. 3 See Antananarivo Annual, No. III. p. 27. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 43 

tribe, a word of probably similar origin to an identical one used 
in the Melanesian islands, and there meaning "the live sea," 
because of the active surf The Taimoro occupy a coast 
exposed to the full force of the S.E. trade winds.^ Then 
come the Taisaka, the Taifasy, and other districts. At the 
extreme south-east corner of Madagascar is the fertile vale of 
Ambolo, " At-the-Bamboos," and the region occupied by the 
Tanosy, or " Islanders " (?) ; and proceeding round the southern 
point, and turning northward along the western side of the 
island, are the territories of the Tandroy, the Masikoro, the 
Vezo, the emigrant Tanosy, and the Antifiherenana ; and 
north of these is the extensive region, extending nearly to the 
north of the island, inhabited by the various tribes loosely called 
Sakalava, because conquered by a warlike people of that name. 
This conquering race formed two kingdoms, that of Iboina to 
the north, and Menabe south of it. The latter of these two 
words is probably the same as that used by the Hova to denote 
an estate held direct from the sovereign. 

It will be evident, therefore, that to treat this division of 
Malagasy place-names completely, ii would be necessary to 
combine with it an examination of tribal names ; and perhaps 
this may be attempted at some future time, when our informa- 
tion on these becomes more full and accurate than it now is. 
Enough has probably now been said to show how full of interest 
the inquiry is, and how much light is thrown upon the mental 
character of the Malagasy, as well as on some other subjects, 
by the names they give to the natural features of the country, 
as well as to the settlements and towns they have formed over 
its surface. 

^ See Antananarivo Annual, No. VL p. 25. 



144 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST, 

APPENDIX. 
BETSILEO PLACE-NAMES.! 

Among the most common and characteristic place-names amongst 
the Betsileo are the following : — 

Towns. — Ivohibe, Ambohibe, Ambohimandroso, Mahazoarivo, V6hitrarivo> 
really Vohitsarivo, Ivohitromby, really Ivohitsaombe, Ambohitromby, really 
Ambohitsaombe. The compounds with -arivo ("thousand") are very fre- 
quent as names of towns ; e.g., Ivohitsarivo, Mahazoarivo (the ancient capital 
of the I Sandra province, where Andriamanalina lived at the time of his famous 
negotiations with Andrianampoinimerina), Akarinarivo, Ambohimanarivo, 
Andrainarivo, Ilanjainarivo, Tomboraivo. As far as my own experience 
goes, towns with this noun of number (indicating great quantity of wealth 
of cattle, slaves, subjects, &c.) are or were invariably the seat of rather 
superior Umfo-menakely {i.e., feudal land proprietors), never, so far as I 
have seen, mere villages included in but not the capital of the menakely 
(estate). Fenoarivo appears to be an Ambaniandro (a name given to the 
Hova by the Betsileo and southern tribes) name. There is one Fenoarivo 
in the Manandriana province, but not in the Betsileo proper, i.e., south of the 
Matsiatra river ; and that one Fenoarivo is a Government town, probably 
named, as undoubtedly many Government towns in the south were named 
{e.g., Fanjakana and Fianarantsoa), not by the aborigines, but by the 
colonists from the capital. There is another between Ikalamavony and 
Modongy ; but there are too many runaway slaves and Hova there to 
make it a real Betsileo village. The compounds with -bny are also 
characteristic. Ony in these w^ords is not used as the equivalent for river ; 
and, indeed, it is doubtful whether lafio (water) is not a more correct 
translation for that word at all times, the bny being simply the confluence 



^ This paper on the place-names of the southern-central province of Mada- 
gascar, the Betsileo, is from the pen of my friend and brother missionary, the 
Rev. Charles T. Price, formerly for several years resident in that part of the 
island, and which he kindly allows me to add to my own paper. 

This chapter was written thirteen years ago, and first published in the 
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, April, 1873. Since that time M, Grandidier 
has published the volume on the Historical Geography of Madagascar, in his 
great work on this country ; and in his very elaborate tables of all the known 
place-names both on the coast and the interior he has given the meanings of many 
hundreds of these. He has also added an essay on the place-names, from which 
I have extracted paragraphs as to the prefixes An- and Am- in the early part of 
this chapter. The only other paper I know of on the subject is an amusing one 
by Vice-Consul W. C. Pickersgill, in Antananarivo Annual, No. XII., 1888, 
entitled, " Revision of North-West Place-Names ; some Curiosities of Topo- 
graphical Nomenclature." He shows how Europeans, ignorant of Malagasy, 
and Hovas, ignorant of provincial dialects, have alike corrupted the coast names. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. I45 

of the iano. At any rate, in place-names ony means the confluence of 
the people, a large gathering, profanum valgus of Rome, or o\ ttoXXoi 
of Athens. Thus, Nasandratsofiy (corrupted by Hova and Europeans into 
Nasandratony) is the place that was raised up, or built, by the multitude 
— a name easily understood by any one who has seen the large gatherings 
of people in this comparatively small village assembled by Ramavo, a 
descendant of Andriamanalina, and chief tainess there. Other instances 
are Ambohitsoaony, Ambalamisaony^the homestead where there is a 
gathering of people), and Tondroinony. Either by the " -ony " or 
" -arivo," or some other such addition, important towns generally have 
names far removed from the mean or commonplace. One might be 
tolerably sure, for instance, that such a place as Amboasary or Itaolana 
was not anciently of great importance. 

Villages and homesteads. — Frequently such names begin with the con- 
tracted place-form of vbhitra or vala, as Ambohibary, or Ambalabe.^ 
Vbhitra is a village or town, and although vala is often used of a col- 
lection of houses numerous enough to be called a village, yet strictly 
speaking a vala is a homestead, the equivalent in Imerina being tambbho. 
Our place at Fanjakana, with its house and outbuildings, including kitchen, 
school-room, scholars' dwellings, &c., standing in a large garden, was 
correctly named Ambatolahinandrianisiahana = " At - Andrianisiahana's- 
vatolahy," or monument (not grave), which stood at the very gateway of 
the premises. But the place was usually spoken of as a vala, occasionally 
as a vbhitra, and once I heard a native speak of going outside the com- 
pound, as going outside the tanana. This seems to indicate that there is 
no fixed law for the use of either word in forming place-names of villages 
or towns. Not so, however, with the prefixes I- and Am- or An-. I am 
not referring to the simple omission of the I-, as in Fianarantsoa for 
Ifianarantsoa, which is a mere matter of habit and fashion ; but to the 
non-interchangeabihty of the simple form with or without the I-, and the 
form with the Am- or An-. Vohibe or Ivohibe, for instance, is not the 
same as Ambohibe, nor Ivohipotsy as Ambohipotsy. Vodisandra is the 
mouth of the Sandra river ; Ambodisandra is the name of the adjacent 
village. Vatolahinandrianisiahana is the name of the deceased judge's 
monument ; but it would have been incorrect to call our place Ivatola- 
hinandrianisiahana ; it was ^7/zbatolahinandrianisiahana. I have heard 
tendrombbhitra used for vbhitra : is it not possible that the true vohitra was 
situated at the tendrombbhitra ? that Ivohipotsy, for instance, was the village 
at the top of the hill Ivohipotsy, and Ambohipotsy the village on the hill- 
side ? ^ 

Physical features. — The compounds with harana, a precipice, are very 
common in the more precipitous parts of the Betsileo province. Names 
with this compound invariably represent faithfully the nature of the place. 
Instances are, Ankaramalaza (at least two in the larindrano, and one in 



* Ambalavao is one of the most common, wearisomely so. 
^ On this point, cf. p. 133 ante. 

II 



146 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the Ilalangina), Ankaranosy (the ascent to which might well be termed a 
" goat-tract," os)' = goat) and Ankaratsinhnana. More common still are names 
recording other physical features of the locality, as Ivatoavo, Ambatoreny, 
Ambatosoa, Vatomitatana, Ambatomena,Andranovorivato, Vatofotsy, Anjo- 
lobato, Ambatomainty, Ambatoiinandrahana ("the chiselled rock"), Ambo- 
himiarina (which is " perched up " near the crest of a high hill), Midongy 
(on a hill in the south), and Modongy (in the west ; a cloud seems to be 
always sullenly ' frowning round its overhanging brow), Ilamosina, Ampasina 
(= Ampasika), Vinany and its numerous compounds. There are at least 
three places in the Betsileo named Andrainjato, one in each of the three 
provinces, and each of them rocky hills. That in the Isandra is a pro- 
minent rather than lofty ridge, on which are many rocks curiously piled 
together. It is, and I believe always has been, uninhabited ; but there 
are many other named places quite desolate. In the Sandra there is 
a current proverb, as follows : "Andrainjato ro avo-tany, nasandratsa ny 
bitsika : ko ny hitsika ro be-loha, sasatsa ny nitao-tane," i.e., "Andrainjato is 
lofty ground because raised by- the ants ; and the ants have big heads 
because they are weary with carrying earth." 

The plants most plentiful or peculiar to the neighbourhood appear fre- 
quently to give the name to a village or uninhabited hill, e.g. Ikando (where 
the wild plant kando freely grows), Amboasary, Ankazosoaravina, Sakaviro 
(? a transposition of Sakarivo = ginger), Beanana, Andranorondrona, Anka- 
fotsa {hafotra), Anahimalemy, Vahambe, Ankafina, Saha, Sahamalaza, 
Besakoana. There are two towns, both in the heart of the sweet-scented 
forest, named Ivohimanitra {inanitra = fragrant) ; but one at least of these 
must be in the Tanala (forest region). 

Animals are represented in such names as Alambomandrevo, lavonomby 
Vohitromby, Maroparasy, Bevoalavo, larinomby, Itaolana, Kalalao, Anka- 
ranosy. Ambohitsandrazanimamba is not such an instance. The mamba 
or voay, with the Betsileo, is not only the crocodile, but the big, awe- 
inspiring man — king, chief, or governor — in any place ; and Ambohi- 
tsandrazanimamba was so named when old Andriamanalina, in dividing 
his inheritance among his sons, directed that one of them — probably the 
eldest — should leave the old Isandra capital of Mahazoarivo and reside at 
Ambohitsandrazana. The mamba was to miandry fanjakana (guard the 
kingdom) there, and hence the name. When any of the family die, the 
body, in the course of the funeral ceremonies, involving a pilgrimage 
round the province lasting some weeks or months, is sure to lie in state for 
a time at Ambohitsandrkzana. The family tomb and favourite residence 
of Rajoaka, the present prince and descendant of Andriamanalina, is at 
Ivohitsasaky (Ivohitsasaky = the " timid village "), so named because it lies 
completely hidden in a small wood at the base of the range of hills at the 
end of which stands Ambohitsandrazana. 

Farther on, under the same range of hills, is Isorana, a village most of 
whose houses are built each on a separate boulder of rock of immense 



Doiigy = sulky, morose. 



MALAGASY PLACE-NAMES. 1 4/ 

size, so that to get to a neighbour's house quite a perilous journey has to be 
made from one boulder to the other. In some cases, to get from one house 
to the next you have to descend from the boulder and pass through an 
immense cave under the cliff. There are two of these large caves ; one 
would hold a thousand people, and the other was used for storing rice in the 
old days of civil war. They had a spring of water there also, if I am not 
mistaken. Other of the houses are situated between the foot of the cliff 
and the boulders, almost if not quite concealed from view from the high 
road. The houses being almost the same colour as the rocks, and being 
either perched aloft in most unlikely situations, or else hidden by the huge 
boulders scattered about before them, the village was analogous to Ivohi- 
tsasaky in respect of its modest and retiring situation. Even if the village 
were observed, the inhabitants, in case of alarm, would not have been 
found — they would have removed by secret paths into the cave behind. 
This power of removing themselves may have been the origin of the name 
Isorana, or Isorane, as the pure Betsileo would have it. There is a proverb 
which runs : " Ivohitsasaky ny anaty ala : ko Isorane ny anaty vato," 
i.e., " Ivohitsasaky is within the forest, and Isorane is within the rock." 
The whole of the valley in which these two villages are situated, and at 
the southern end of which Ambohitsandrazana looks down from its lofty 
crag, is typical of the condition of insecurity in which, in former times, 
the Betsileo lived. Between Ivohitsasaky and Ambohitsandrazana the wall 
of rock which shuts in the valley on the west is cleft by a winding gully 
at right angles to the valley itself. On one of the steep sides of this gully, 
perhaps loo feet or more from the bottom, the rock forms a natural ledge 
30 or 40 feet wide, on which stands a single row of houses forming the 
village of Ivohibasiana {i.e., " the village which can (only) be shot at " — not 
reached in any other way). As you pass along the road in the valley this 
village is only perceptible from one particular spot, where, standing at 
exactly the right angle, you get in a line with that part of the tortuous gully 
in which the ledge is. Even then the path up to the village is unseen ; for 
the ledge appears to terminate abruptly, high up above the valley, on that 
side from which you would approach it from the road. 

It is worth while to remark that the word Betsileo would seem to be 
a Hova name apphed loosely and ignorantly to any place or people south 
of the river Sisaony. Immediately south of Imerina comes Vakinankaratra, 
then Manandriana, and after that Betsileo proper — south of the Matsiatra 
river. But these Betsileo do not like to be so called ; they prefer their 
own name, judiciously confirmed to them by the Queen in a kabary in 1873 
— Ambohitromby, or, more exactly and fully, Andriambohitsaombelah}-, 
which, if shortened, should be Andriambohitsa. They have great wealth 
in cattle ; though superficial observers and new-comers have denied this. 
The fact is that the pasture-land is getting less extensive in the central 
parts of the Betsileo, and that the wealthiest landed proprietors now keep 
most of their cattle in the extreme west, bordering on the Bara country, 
where in one small village it is not at all uncommon to see 500 to 1,000 
head of cattle, all belonging to some rich man living far away to the 



148 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

east, who places his cattle in these roomy plains under the charge of 
herdsmen. 

The tendency of the foregoing rambling notes, as will be seen, is to 
show that the place-names have an intimate connection with the charac- 
teristics of the places themselves. Even now, with our comparatively 
slight knowledge of Betsileo history, the connection between the names 
and the peculiarities or distinctive features of the places named is traceable 
in most cases. 




[Photografh by Di. FtNN. 

:A2sakalava warrior (heathen). 



CHAPTER VIIL 

CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH CHIEF- 
TAINSHIP AND ROYALTY AMONG THE MALAGASY; 
AND NOTES ON RELICS OF THE SIGN AND GESTURE 
LANGUAGE. 

The Betsileo — Special words or " Chiefs' language " — In Malayo-Polynesian 
languages — For Malagasy sovereigns — Illness and death — Burial — Mourn- 
ing — Diseases — Royal servants — Royal houses — Chiefs' words among 
Betsileo — For family of chiefs — For elderly chiefs — For chiefs old or 
young — Extreme honour paid to chiefs — Fady or Taboo in words — 
Tabooed animals — Royal names — Sacred character of — Veneration for 
royalty — Sakalava chiefs' posthumous names — Relics of the sign and 
gesture language — Salutations — Symbolic acts — Royalty — "Licking the 
sole " — Kaharys — The Taboo. 

MY object in the present chapter is to call attention to and 
to describe some peculiar words and customs in use 
among the Hova, or people of the central province of Imerina, 
and also among the Betsileo, the tribe inhabiting the district to 
the south of this first-named province. The Hova are probably 
the latest and purest Malayan or lighter Polynesian immigrants ; 
they are also the most advanced, intelligent, and civilised of the 
various Malagasy tribes ; among them education and Christi- 
anity have made the greatest progress ; and, since the beginning 
of this century, they have become the dominant tribe of the 
country, and their queen is sovereign of the greater part of the 
island. 

The Betsileo are a darker race than the Hova, being pro- 
bably descended from Melanesian ancestors, or from a mixture 



150 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

of the dark and light Pacific islanders ; they are also taller and 
perhaps stronger than their northern neighbours, although, 
owing to the superior discipline of the Hova soldiers, they were 
subdued by them about eighty years ago, and have ever since 
been obedient subjects to the sovereign at Antananarivo. They 
appear to me, as well as to others who have lived both in 
Imerina and in the Betsileo 'province, to be less intelligent than 
the Hova, but possibly this may be because their advantages 
have been less. Among them, however, very satisfactory progress 
is being made, and both the London Missionary Society and the 
Norwegian Lutheran Mission have a large number of congre- 
gations and many thousands of children in their schools. 

It is a fact well known to all philologists that in several 
groups of language there are found classes of words which are 
only used by the people when speaking of their sovereigns or 
chiefs, with regard to their persons, their actions, and their sur- 
roundings, as well as to the honours paid to them both when 
they are living and after death. And for a long time past it has 
been known that in the central province of Imerina there are a 
number of such specialised words which are employed with 
regard to the sovereign, and these have probably been in use for 
centuries as applied to the chiefs of the central province. It will 
be seen that these are not words which are not also employed 
with regard to ordinary persons or things or actions, but are 
almost all of them commonly used words which have gained a 
special and different meaning when applied to the sovereign. 

The more noticeable of these words are connected with the 
illness, decease, and burial ceremonies of a Malagasy sovereign, 
although there are also two or three which are applied to the 
living king or queen. (Perhaps, however, these are more of the 
nature of honorific titles than strictly coming within the class 
of words we are here discussing.) Thus, an old word for a 
sovereign is Ampingara-bolamena, literally "golden gun," the 
first part of the phrase being taken from the Portuguese espin- 
garda, so that this term is not of more ancient origin than about 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 151 

three centuries ago, or, at most, three centuries and a half. 
Another term applied to the sovereign is Fdhirajy^^ ^rst" a word 
which is not used with regard to things generally, although it is 
formed strictly according to the rule for making ordinal from 
cardinal numbers {e.g,,fdharba^ second, from rba^ two ; fdhatelo^ 
third, from telo^ three), the word voalbhany (voa, fruit, lo/ia, head) 
being always used for " first." ^ A term sometimes applied to 
the queen by elderly officers in public speeches seems to our 
notions somewhat impertinently familiar, viz., Ikdlatbkana ; in 
ordinary talk by the people this means " our only lass," and the 
word ikdla is often applied also to hens. If one might venture 
on such a free translation, it seems to mean {not " cock of the 
walk," but) ''hen of the roosting-place." It is, however, very 
like, in its free familiarity, the use of the word laldhy (" you 
fellow ") to the former kings by some of their most privileged 
councillors. The members of the royal family are termed 
Atinandriana (lit. "the liver," or "inside," of the sovereign or 
chief). And among some tribes the chiefs are termed Mason- 
drdno, i.e., " water channels," through whom all benefits are 
supposed to be derived, as the water flows along the bed of a 
river. 

Returning, however, to the more exact illustrations of the 
subject, a Malagasy king or queen is not said to be " ill " 
{inardry\ but " rather warm " {inafdnafdnd). And they do not 
" die " {maty), but are said to " retire," or " to turn the back " 
{miamboho). In parts of Madagascar distant from Imerina, the 
word folaka (bent, broken, weakened) is employed in speaking 
of a deceased chief (With regard to people generally, among 
the Tanala and other tribes, the phrase fola-mdnta \inanta, raw] 

^ A curious word for chiefs and their wives is used by the Bara, Sakalava and 
some other Malagasy tribes, viz., hlby which in Imerina usually means " animal," 
" beast," or, as an adjective, " sensual," " brutal " ; although it is also used here 
of children as well, probably much in the same way as w^ords of an unpleasant 
(and even nasty) meaning are often applied to children and infants from fear of 
some envious and malign influence, such as the " evil eye." Perhaps, however, 
it is really a word of entirely different origin, from the Swahili hlby, "my lady," 
" my mistress." 



152 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

is used for sudden death ; folaka an-dantony \ldntony, the fore- 
arm ?], for dying young ; while trdno folaka is the house \trdno\ 
where a corpse lies in state.) Then the dead body of a sovereign 
is not termed " a corpse " {fdty), but " the sacred thing " {ny 
mdsina). The late Queen Ranavalona II., who died in 1883, is 
always spoken of as Ny Mdsina in the government gazette and 
in proclamations, as well as by the people generally in ordinary 
conversation. There is among the Hova, as well as among the 
other Malagasy tribes, a deep sense of " the divinity that doth 
hedge a king " ; and until the acceptance of Christianity by the 
late queen and her government, the Hova sovereigns were 
termed "the visible God" (Andriamdnitra hita mdso)\ other 
terms of similar import were also applied to them. In accord- 
ance also with this same belief, upon the stone structure covering 
the chamber formed of slabs of undressed rock, where the royal 
corpse is deposited, a small timber-framed building is erected, 
which is called the " sacred house " {trdno mdsina). This is in 
appearance exactly like the old style of native house, made of 
timber framing, the walls of thick upright planking, and high- 
pitched roof covered with wooden shingles. This distinction of 
having a timber house built upon the stone tomb is also shared 
by the higher ranks of nobles, who, it should be remembered, are 
descended from ancient kings in Imerina. 

When the corpse of a sovereign is lying in state, the women 
in their various divisions or tribes are expected to come in relays 
to mourn ; but this ceremonial mourning is not called by its 
usual name {misaona), but the people are said to " present " or 
" offer tears " {inidti-drdnomdso). Then again, a sovereign is not 
said to be " buried " {alevina)^ but is " hidden " iafenina) ; and 
the massive silver coffin made of dollars hammered into plates, 
in which most of the Hova kings or queens in more recent 
times have been buried, is called the " silver canoe " {Idkam-bSla^, 
a word in which a little bit of history is doubtless preserved : a 
remembrance of a former period when the Hova were not, as 
they are now, an inland people, but a coast-dwelling or an island 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 53 

tribe, and buried their dead in an old canoe, as is still the custom 
with the Sakalava,^ the Betsimisaraka, and other Malagasy 
peoples living on the coast. 

When the royal corpse has been deposited in its last resting- 
place, and the stonework at the entrance to the tomb is being 
closed up again, this act is called " stopping up the sun " {tanipi- 
mdsoandro) ; the sovereign being " the sun," the light and warmth 
of his people, and was formerly often so termed in public 
speeches.2 Much the same idea appears in the phrase used by 
some of the coast tribes in speaking of the decease of their 
chiefs, viz., " the king is reclining," or " leaning on one side " 
{inihllana ny ampanjaka). This same word is used in Imerina 
to denote the afternoon, the " decline of the day " {inihllana ny 
dndrd). A very bold and poetical figure is also employed to 
express the general mourning at the decease of a sovereign, 
Mihohoka ny tdny dman-ddnitra, i.e.^ " Heaven and earth are 
turned upside down " ! This is not the place to describe in 
detail the many and curious ceremonies, as well as the numerous 
things prohibited to be done, at the decease of a Malagasy king 
or queen ; suffice it to say that, with very few exceptions, every 
one's head had to be shaved ; no hat could be worn or umbrella 
carried ; the Idmba only (no European dress) could be worn, and 
this had to be bound under the armpits, leaving the shoulders 
uncovered ; all singing, dancing, or playing of musical instru- 
ments was prohibited, as well as the practice of many handicrafts, 
as spinning, weaving, making of pottery, gold and silver work, 
&C.3 Of course some occupations could not be altogether 

^ A somewhat similar historical fragment lies under the word used for the 
water used in the circumcision ceremonies : it is termed rlino masina, " salt 
water," and in the case of children who are heirs to the throne it must actually 
be fetched from the sea (ranoinasina). Doubtless sea water was formerly used 
in all such cases while the Hova were still a shore-dwelling tribe. 

^ And so concealing property due to the sovereign, or peculation of govern- 
ment dues, is termed manao masoandro an-karoiia, i.e., " putting the sun into a 
basket." 

3 See account of the funeral ceremonies at the death of Radama I., given in a 
subsequent chapter. 



154 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

abandoned, such as the tilKng of the soil, sowing and planting 
rice, &c. ; but such work was not called by the usual terms, but 
was mentioned as mildtsaka an-tsdha, i.e., " going into the 
country," or "settling down in the fields." So also, the usual 
word for " market " {tsend) is not employed during the time of 
public mourning, but these great concourses of people are called 
simply " meetings," or " places of resort " (^fihdonana). They are 
also called tsena mdlahelo, "sorrowful markets." In speaking of the 
death of relatives of the sovereign, they are not said to be dead, 
but " absent," or " missing " (dlso). The same figurative phrase 
as is used by ourselves in speaking of friends or relatives who 
are dead as " departed," is also employed by the Malagasy, who 
say their friends are Idsa, " gone " ; they also speak of them as 
reraka, i.e., " faint," " exhausted," and as Idtsaka, i.e., " fallen," or 
" laid down " ; while the surviving members of a family of which 
some are dead are spoken of as " not up to the right number " 
{Idtsak' hd).'^ With regard to the ordinary people also, their 
dead relatives are said to be " lost " (very), and " finished," or 
" done " {vita) ; and also Idsan-ko rdzana, i.e., " gone to become 
ancestors." 

Although not strictly included in the present subject, it may 
be remarked that the same use of euphemistic expressions as 
those just mentioned with regard to death is also seen in those 
used by the Malagasy in speaking of things they have a great 
dread of, especially small-pox, which, before the introduction of 
vaccination, often made fearful ravages in Imerina, as it still 
occasionally does among the coast tribes. This terrible disease 
is called belemby, i.e., " greatly deserted," no doubt from the con- 
dition of the villages where it had appeared. It is also called 
lavlra, an imperative or optative formed from the adjective 
Idvitra, "far off," and thus meaning "be far away!" or "avaunt!" 
A feeling of delicacy causes other euphemisms, such as the 

^ A very poetical expression, in which the word latsaka also occurs, is used in 
speaking of the dead, who are said to be as " Salt fallen into water which cannot 
be salt again " ("S/ra latsaka an-drauo ka tsy himpody intsony "). 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 55 

phrase didiam-pbitra, literally, "cutting the navel," instead of 
fora and other terms denoting the circumcision ceremonies. 

The use of some special words, as applied to certain classes 
of royal servants or attendants, may here be noticed ; although 
possibly these also are not, speaking exactly, of the class of 
the euphemistic expressions like the majority of those described 
above. Thus the royal cooks are termed the " clean-handed 
ones " {inadlo tanana) ; describing, no doubt, what they should 
be, even if they occasionally are not exactly what their name 
implies. Then some companies of royal guards a few years ago 
were termed the " sharp ones " {inaranitra ; cf. Eng. " sharp- 
shooters"?). The government couriers in the provinces are 
called keli-lohalika, lit., " little-kneed " ; while a class of palace 
servants in constant attendance on the sovereign, and from 
whom the queen's messengers are chosen, are the tsiinando^ or 
tsimandao, i.e., "never forsaking," because some of them are 
always in attendance, day and night, upon the sovereign. The 
queen's representatives at distant places are called mdsoivbko, 
i.e., " eyes behind " ; but this word is also now used in the more 
general sense of an " agent " of other persons besides the 
sovereign. 

It is an ancient custom that members of the royal family, 
and of the next highest class of andriana, or nobles (the Zanak'- 
Andriamasinavalona), who happen to have committed serious 
offences, are not put into iron fetters, but are bound with cords. 
And when any subject of high position is accused of crime, a 
spear with silver blade, engraved with the name of the sove- 
reign, is carried by government officers and fixed in the ground 
opposite the door of the accused person's house. This spear is 
called Tsitlalainga, i.e., " hater of lies " ; and while it remains so 
fixed, no inmate of the house can leave it. Among the Taimoro 
chiefs, a house set apart for their wives who are of noble birth is 
called Fenovola, i.e., " full of money." 

The rapacious character of the upper classes among the 
Malagasy is significantly shown by a provincial name given to 



156 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the chief people, viz., Ardraldky, 2>., "gluttonous, eager to take 
one's share before others." The despotic nature of Malagasy- 
sovereigns is clearly shown in many native proverbs ; e.g., " Ny 
manjdka toy ny Idnitra, ka tsy azo refesina; toy ny nidsodndro, ka 
tsy azo tohaina^' i.e., " The sovereign is like the sky, and cannot 
be measured ; like the sun, and cannot be contended with." 

Another fact with regard to royalty may be recorded. 
During the reign of Queen Rasoherina (1863- 1868), a new 
royal house was erected m the palace yard at Antananarivo, as is 
customary when a new sovereign comes to the throne. But in 
this case the standard for all the chief dimensions of the build- 
ing was the refy, or fathom, as measured by the queen herself, 
between the tips of her fingers when the arms were stretched to 
their full extent — in her majesty's case, about five feet eight 
inches in length. And it was a matter of no small trouble and 
annoyance to Mr. J. Cameron, who designed and superintended 
the building, to make all his dimensions in accordance with the 
standard. He had, in fact, to make a new scale, for all the 
principal dimensions of the palace, and of its verandahs, doors, 
windows, &c., were multiples or fractions of the queen's personal 
refy, as measured by herself 

One of the students in the London Missionary Society's 
College at Antananarivo, named Rajaonary, from North 
Betsileo, told me that such special words, as applied to the 
chiefs, were a very marked feature in the speech of the Betsileo 
people, and that in fact there were a much larger number of 
these words employed in the southern province than were in 
use among the Hova. He gave me at the same time a number 
of examples ; and I then asked him to note down these words, 
which he accordingly did in a few days, writing quite a small 
essay on the subject. He entitles it — 

" Special Words employed among the Betsileo with 
reference to their chiefs. 

" The Betsileo are a people who pay extraordinary respect to 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 5/ 

their chiefs, and from this fact everything relating to them is a 
thing kept specially for them, and is not allowed to be mixed 
up with what belongs to the mass of the people. The chiefs 
houses, although there is very little difference between them and 
those of the people generally, are like something sacred or set 
apart in a special manner, so that no one can enter them at will, 
but only after having asked and obtained leave of the chief, or 
after being summoned by him. And again, after having entered, 
no one can push himself forward north of the hearth,^ or stand 
idly about, but must sit quietly and respectfully south of the 
hearth. And in the same manner also the things in the house 
are set apart, for the drinking-tin, the spoons, the plates, &c.^ 
cannot be handled or put to the lips ; for if any one drinks from 
them, the hand must be held to the mouth, and the water then 
poured into it from above. The chiefs bedstead cannot be used 
by any person except one who is also a chief The mat on 
which a chief sits in his house must not be trodden upon, but 
must be lifted up in passing, and cannot be sat upon by any one 
but himself And all the furniture in the house is like some- 
thing sacred, and must not be lightly touched when carried 
outside, for those who receive it are warned by the words ' an- 
ddpa ' (' belonging to the palace '), that they may take care of 
it. And not only are the things in the chiefs house thus set 
apart for his own use, but also even those in the people's houses, 
should the chief have chanced to use them ; and even their 
own drinking-tins, ladles, &c., are often kept untouched by the 
lips, lest the chief should chance to pass by and require them, 
so that the Betsileo are accustomed to drink water out of their 
hands. 

"But not only are things thus kept by the Betsileo for 
special use by their chiefs, but many words are also set apart for 
them, both the names for certain things and other names as 
well. These may be divided into three classes, as follows : — 

" I. V\ords specially applied to the Family of Chiefs^ from their 
^ The place of honour in a Malagasy house. 



158 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 



birth until maturity, but while their parents are still living. See 



the following : — 



Ordinary Becsileo English, 
word. ^ 


Word nscd fjr the 
Children of Chiefs, 


Kilonga 
M Hunan a 


Children 
To eat 


Anakbva ( 
Misba 


Villa 

Velbnia 

Miter a ka 
Maty 


Plate or dish 
Farewell 

To bear offspring 
Dead 


Fisoavana ^ 
Mahazba nono 1 

masina 
Manidina 
Fblaka 



Fdty 



Corpse 



Vblafblaka 



Literal Meaning. 

Child of the Hova.^ 

Sba^ in Hova, good, plea- 
sant. 

Verbal noun from above. 

Lit., ' May you get a sacred 
nipple.' = 

To cause to descend. 

Bent, broken, weakened, 
see p. 151, ante. 

Broken or bent money. 



" 2. Words specially applied to Elderly Chiefs — that is, those 
who are too old to have their father and mother still living. 
When that is the case, there is a considerable change made in 
the names given to the parts of the body, as well as in certain 
words describing their actions and their condition. This will be 
seen by the following list : — 



Ordinary Betsilco 
word. 

Ant it r a 



English. 



Old 



Word nsed for 
Elderly Chiefs. 

Mdsiiia 



Literal Meaning. 



Sacred, established, &c., see 
p. 152. 
Aiiakandfiana An adult man Hova, or uy an- Hova (sec 'ante^, or the 
(lit., ' child of driandahy prince, 

the chief) 3 
Andrdnobe (wife An adult woman Hova, or uy an- Hova, or the princess, 
of above) (Ht., ' at the drlamhavy 

great house ') 
Loha Head Kabeso Brains (?) 

Maso Eye Fanilo Torch.** 

Sbfina Ear Fihainbana The listening (or listener). 

Tanana Hand Faudray The taker. 



^ The word Hova seems to convey the idea of "noble," "princely," in many of 
the non-Hova tribes. So when the Betsileo salute any of their own chiefs, they 
say, " Manao akbry ny Hova e ? " — i.e., " How is the Hova ? " 

2 Cf. Isa. Ix. 16 : " Thou shalt also suck the milk of the Gentiles, and shalt suck 
the breasts of kings." 

3 This phrase is customary in public speaking as a mark of respect to the 
chief's children, when deprecating blame (as is always done in the ooening sen- 
tences of a kabary or public speech). 

* Cf " The lamp of the body is the eye." r. 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 59 



^'^'^"'word.'^'^^'' £«5//s//. 


Word used for 
Elderly Chiefs. 


Literal Meaning, 


Toiigotra 




Foot 


Fandia 


The treader. 


Nify 




Tooth 


Faiieva 


A flag (lit., the hoverer). 


Troka 




Belly 


Fisafbana 


Safo is 'rubbing,' 'caress- 


Miliiuana 




To eat 


Mifaufotra 


ing. 
(?) 


Villa 




Dish, plate 


Fifaujbrona 


(?) Verbal noun from pre- 
ceding w^ord. 


Mipctraka 




To sit 


Midriiia 


To be erect (in Hova). 


Mandcha 




Togo 


Mamindra 


To remove (do.). 


Maiidiy, or 


Ma- 


To lie down, to 


Mirbtra 


(?) 


tory 




sleep 






Far afar a 




Bedstead 


Filanana 


Place of desire (?) 


Vady 




Husband or wife Fitaiia 


A ford (in Hova). 


Maty 




Dead 


Very 


Lost. 


\ Faty 




Corpse 


Havcrezana 


The losing, from very, lost, 
sec p. 154. 


Velbma 




Farewell (lit., 
'may you 
live ') 


Masuia 

Manao akbry ny 


Be sacred, established, &c. 


Akorvaiigha 


xof 


How are you ? 


rbtana ? 


How did you sleep ? (^sec 
above, mirbtra.) 



[It will be seen from the above list that several of the words 
for the parts of the body — the eye, the ear, the hand, the foot — 
are simply words describing the actual office of those members, 
as light-giving, means of hearing, taking, treading, &c. Probably 
the very general practice of tabooing (making^^^^^) words which 
form the names or parts of the names of chiefs (which we shall 
notice again further on) has had influence in producing some of 
these specialised words.] 

" 3. Words specially applied to Chiefs^ whether Old or Young. 



Ordinary Betsileo 
word. 

Trdno 
Mar dry 
Mijalo 



English. 

House 
111, unwell 
To nurse 
sick) 



(the 



Word used for 
Chiefs. 

Lap a 

Manelo 

Mitrambo 



Literal Meaning. 

(?) Also used in Imerina. 
To shade, to shelter. 
(?) 



^ Sometimes this salutation of the common people is substituted by the 
phrase : ^^ Akbry ny nandrianghareo f " 3, phrase of the same meaning as the one 
addressed to the chief, only that the ordinary word mandry is here kept instead 
of the special one mirbtra. 



i6o 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 



Ordinarymsileo £„^,„,,, 


Word used for 
Chiefs. 


Literal Meaning. 


Miandi avaiia 


To sing at a 
funeral 


Mampibtraka 


(?)^ 


Trdnovorona 


Bier (lit., 'bird 
house ') 


Tranovitana 


The finished house (?). 


Miahy 


To lie in state 


Manipiary 


To cause to go round 
about.^ 


Fdsana 


Tomb 


Tranomena 


Red house.3 


Mandevina 


To bury 


Mamritra 


To plunge, to dive ; in 



Imerina the phrase an- 
Iritra is used to describe 
the temporary burial of 
a corpse until the proper 
tomb is completed. 

" The poles on which a chiefs corpse is carried to burial are 
termed hazomdsina^ ' sacred wood ' ; and the water into which 
they are cast away after the funeral is called rdnodrztra, * water 
of endurance'? [aritra, endurance, patience, &c.). When the 
dead from among the common people are spoken of, the words 
Raivelona (' Living father ') or Renivelona (' Living mother ') 
are prefixed to their names ; but in the case of deceased chiefs 
the word Zdnahdry (God, lit Creator) is prefixed to their names 
when they are spoken of; in the same way as the word Rabe- 
voina (' The one overtaken by much calamity ' ?) is employed 
by the Hova in speaking of the departed, or simply, Itompoko- 
Idhy (' Sir,' or ' my lord '), or Itbmpokovdvy (Madam,' or ' my 
lady'). 

" The chiefs of the Betsileo are considered as far above the 
common people, and are looked upon almost as if they were 
gods. If anything angers a chief and he curses, the people 
consider the words he speaks as unalterable and must surely be 
fulfilled ; so the persons whom he may chance to curse are 
^ In Hova hotraka means " boihng," but perhaps there is no connection 
between the two words. 

2 Scarlet is the royal colour in Madagascar ; at the funeral of Radama I., one 
of the large palaces in which he lay in state was draped from the ridge of the 
roof to the ground with scarlet cloth ; the sovereign alone has a large scarlet 
umbrella carried over her, and dresses in a scarlet Idmba or robe. 

3 See Mr. Richardson's description of Betsileo funeral ceremonies, Antanana- 
nanvo Amiiial^ I. p. 7i) Reprint p. 74. 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. l6l 

exceedingly afraid and in deep distress. And, on the other 
hand, if anything pleases him, and he thanks (lit., ' blesses ') any 
one, then those who receive his blessing are exceedingly glad, 
because they suppose that that also must certainly be fulfilled. 
For the chiefs are supposed to have power as regards the words 
they utter, not, however, merely the power which a king 
possesses, but power like that of God ; a power which works of 
itself on account of its inherent virtue, and not power exerted 
through soldiers and strong servants. Besides which, when a 
person is accused by another of having done evil, and he denies 
it, he is bidden to lick (or kiss) the back of the hand of the 
chief, or to measure his house,^ and to imprecate evil (on himself) 
while doing it. In this way, so they say, it is found out whether 
he really has committed the offence, or not ; if he did offend 
and yet still persists in denying it, then it is believed that the 
curse he invoked when licking the hand of the chief, or when 
measuring his house, will return upon him ; if, on the contrary, 
he is innocent, he will remain unharmed. In like manner also 
the chief is supposed to have power which works of itself, on 
account of his sacred character, to convict of any secret fault. 
And when the chiefs die they are supposed to really become 
God, and to be able to bless their subjects who are still living ; 
and the reverence in which they are held is extreme ; for when 
their name chances to be mentioned, the utmost respect is paid 
to it both before and after the utterance of it ; before it the 
words Nj/ Zanahdry (God) must be prefixed, and after it the 
following words are added : ' May the mouth strike on the 
rock, and the teeth flow with blood, for he has gone to 
be God ' 2 (the speaker's mouth and teeth being meant). 
And when the chief's grave is cleared of weeds and rubbish 
the people dare not do that unless they have first killed 

^ Measuring the tomb of their master is, I am told, a practice followed by 
slaves in Imerina as an invocation of evil on themselves if they have really done 
something of which they are accused. 

= " Mikapoha amy ny vato ny vava, ary mandchana ra ny nify^fa efa lasan-ko 
Andriamanitra izy." 

12 



1 62 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

oxen and made supplication with outstretched hands to the 
deceased." 



A few remarks may be here made about the practice of 
tabooing — or making fddy — the words or parts of words which 
happen to form the names of chiefs. This appears to be 
prevalent all over Madagascar, and is a custom the Malagasy 
have in common with many of the Oceanic races with which 
they are so closely connected. There are no family names in 
Madagascar (although there are tribal ones, and although also 
one name or part of a name is often seen in a variety of com- 
bination among members of the same family),^ and almost every 
personal name has some distinct meaning, being part of the 
living and still spoken language, either as names of things — 
birds, beasts, plants, trees, inanimate objects, or names describing 
colour, quality, &c., or words which denote actions of various 
kinds. So that the names of the chiefs almost always contain 
some word which is in common use by the people. In such a 
case, however, the ordinary word by which such thing or action 
has hitherto been known must be changed for another, which 
henceforth takes its place in daily speech. Thus, when the 
Princess Rabodo became queen in 1863, at the decease of 
Radama II., she took a new name, Rasoherina (or, in fuller 
form, Rasoheri-manjaka). Now soherina is the word for 
chrysalis, especially for that of the silkworm moth ; but having 
been dignified by being chosen as the royal name, it became 
sacred {fctdy) and must no longer be employed for common 
use ; and the chrysalis thenceforth was termed zana-ddndy, 
"offspring of silk." So again, if a chief had or took the name 
of an animal, say of the dog {ambod), and was known as 
Ramboa, the animal would be henceforth called by another 
name, probably a descriptive one, such as faitdrbaka, i£.^ " the 
driver away," ox fainbvOy "the barker," &c. 

^ Thus, a friend of mine at Ambohimanga, who is called Rainizaivelo, has four 
daughters named respectively Razaivelo, Raovelo, Ravelonoro, and Ranorovelo, 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 163 

Among certain Sakalava tribes certain birds and animals are 
fady, or sacred or tabooed by the chiefs and their families. 
Thus the grey or sooty Parrot ^ is /ddy to one of the Vezo royal 
families,^ and the Tolbho or lark-heeled Cuckoos is sacred to 
one of the chief families of Menabe, further north. Some have 
thought that we have here a relic of the system of totem, but 
the subject needs further investigation. A very curious super- 
stition among the Betsileo and some other tribes is, that from 
the putrid liquid exuding from the corpses of their chiefs a 
serpent q.'A\^(\ fanany is produced, and that this is an embodi- 
ment of the spirit of the departed. It is supposed to take up its 
abode near the tribe and to act as their protector.4 

This tabooing of words in the names of chiefs seems hardly 
to have been carried out by the Hova to such an extent as it is, 
or has been, by the other Malagasy tribes. With one sovereign, 
instead of a number of petty chiefs or kings, the changes would 
be minute and would leave no great impression on the language. 
For we can easily conceive what an annoying uncertainty would 
be introduced into a language by a wide extension of such 
tabooed words, arising from a multiplicity of chiefs. It is as if 
we in England had had to avoid, and make substitutes for, all 
such words as "^^^'logy," " ^^6'graphy," &c., because they formed 
part of the name of King George ; and such words as " will',' 
" will'mg,'' " wilful,'' &c., because they were part of the name of 
King William ; or had now to taboo words like " victory," 
''victim.," ''convict," 8zc., because these syllables form part of 
the name of Queen Victoria. It can hardly be doubted that 
this fashion in language has done very much to differentiate the 
various dialects found in Madagascar ; and it is a matter for 
some surprise that there is not a much greater diversity among 
them than we find to be actually the case. 

Among the western tribes of the country, on account of the 

large number of petty but independent and absolute kings, a 

great deal of change in the spoken language does take place. 

^ Coracopsis obscura. ^ South-west coast. 

3 Ccntropus toulou. '^ Vide infra, Chapter IX., p. 176. 



164 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

" The chieftains of the Sakalava are averse that any name or 
term should approach in sound either the name of themselves or 
any part of their family. Hence, when it was determined that 
the mother of Rataratsa, who came unexpectedly into the world, 
should be named Ravahiny [vahlny, a stranger], it was for- 
bidden that the term vahiny should be applied to any other 
person except herself, and the word anipainsick ^ was instituted 
to^denominate 'stranger.'" (See also Chapter VII. pp. 112-113.) 
It may be here noticed that it is considered highly improper 
to use the name of the sovereign frequently or lightly in ordinary 
conversation ; and Europeans happening to do this, through 
ignorance of native customs, have been requested to desist by 
Malagasy officers who chanced to be present. The royal name 
has a kind of sanctity, and must not be taken in vain. This 
reverence for royalty extends also to royal property. For 
instance, it is a gross breach of propriety to sit or step upon a 
box or case containing anything belonging to or being sent to 
the sovereign. And when anything belonging to the queen is 
being carried or driven along the high road, whether cases, or 
water-pots, or bullocks, all passers-by must turn out of the road, 
or stop close to the side of the path, and remove their hats until 
the royal property has passed by. Further, it is improper to 
compare any other building to the royal palaces, or to use it as 
a standard of height and size ; and it is little short of a crime to 
fire off a gun in the direction of the palace, as this would be a 
sort of threatening or defying its august owner. The sovereign 
must sit in the highest place in any public assembly, and accord- 
ingly the queen's pew in the Chapel Royal at Antananarivo, 
her majesty's seat is higher than the pulpit ; while at the 
opening of one of our Memorial Churches at the capital a few 
years ago the late queen's seat was placed in the gallery of the 
transept, so that no subject might sit higher than their sovereign. 

^ In Dalmond's Vocabiilairc Malgachc-Frnngaise four Ics laiigiies Sakalavc ct 
Bctsimitsara, p. 5, I find this word thus given : " Ampentzek, s. Neuf, nouveau, 
nouvel arrive." 



J 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 65 

One more point as to Malagasy royal names may be men- 
tioned. Among the Sakalava the chiefs' names are changed as 
well as among the Hova, not, however, at their accession to 
power, but after their death. A new name is then given to them, 
by which they are ever afterwards known, and it is a crime to 
utter the name by which they were called when still living. 
These posthumous names all begin with Andrian (prince), and 
end with arivo (a thousand), signifying that such a chief was 
a " prince ruling over," or " loved by," or " feared by," or " re- 
gretted by thousands," of his subjects. Thus a chief called 
Raimosa while living was called Andriamandionarivo after 
death ; another, called at first Mikala, was after death known 
only as Andrianitsoanarivo. M. Guillain says : " This custom 
was not confined to the Sakalava ; it existed among the different 
populations of the south of the island, in Fiherenana, Mahafaly, 
and Androy." Drury, who lived as a slave for fifteen years in 
Madagascar, Trom 1702 to 1717, also says of the south-western 
tribes : " They invoke the souls of their ancestors, and hold them 
in great veneration ; they call them by names which they give 
them after their death, and even regard it as a crime to mention 
them by that which they bore when living ; and these names 
are principally characterised by the word arivou, which termi- 
nates them." 

The following particulars may be recorded as relics of the 
gesture and signs accompanying oral speech among the Hovas 
of Central Madagascar. 

I . One of the native customs which will probably soon strike 
a foreigner coming into the country is that which is made use of 
in passing in front of a superior, or, indeed, any one to whom 
respect is due, or is desired to be paid. This is chiefly, though 
not exclusively, observed indoors, and consists in the person 
passing in front of another, who is usually sitting, bending the 
body low, and, with the right hand extended and nearly touching 
the ground, generally using at the same time the words Mbay 
lalana, Tompoko e (" Allow me to pass, sir "). These words are 



1 66 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

also used, with or without the bending of the body, &c., when 
walking along a public path, and passing any one sitting at a door, 
or window, or on \h&jijerena^ or elevated seat above a boundary 
wall. I have not heard any explanation from a native of the 
meaning or origin of this particular gesture ; possibly it may be 
now lost. But the Hovas look with scorn upon those who 
neglect such acts of politeness, saying of them, contemptuously, 
" He passes on like an ox, and does not say, ' Let me pass.' " 

2. Another expressive gesture among the Hova Malagasy is 
that which is used in presenting hcisina (the dollar of allegiance), 
or any other present to the sovereign, or to the representative of 
royalty. At the close of the speech of formal complimentary 
phrases the speaker stretches out both outspread hands, with 
the palms outward, and, bending downward and forward, raises 
his hands towards the great person addressed until they are 
about level with his head. This appears a very natural and 
significant gesture when making an offering. 

3. A sign of still more profound respect than is shown in the 
foregoing gestures is preserved in the phrase for abject sub- 
mission still in common use, viz., milela-paladia. The literal 
meaning of this is to " lick the sole " (of the foot). Among the 
Hovas this is now only a phrase, but up to a comparatively 
recent period the act it described was one in common use as a 
token of respect from slaves to masters, wives to husbands, and 
from inferiors generally to superiors. Robert Drury (referred 
to in the previous page) describes himself as frequently per- 
forming this act of homage, and seeing it constantly rendered 
by others. Scriptural parallels {cf. Isa. xlix. 23, Ix. 14 ; 
Luke vii. 38) will occur to all readers of the Bible, as well 
as the homage paid by Roman Catholics to the Pope by 
kissing (not his toe, as commonly said, but) the cross on his 
slipper. 

4. There are several Malagasy customs connected with 
royalty which are significant outward acts, although, perhaps, 
not strictly to be reckoned as portions of the gesture language. 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 167 

Among these are the shaving of the head by the whole popu- 
lation at the death of the sovereign ; the wearing at royal 
funerals of the Idmba, or outer loose robe, below the armpits 
instead of over the shoulders, so as to leave the upper part of 
the body uncovered ; and the turning out of the way and 
baring the head when any royal property is carried along. The 
bent of mind among the Malagasy leads them to use symbolic 
acts,^ as well as to the profuse employment of figure and meta- 
phor and parable in their public speeches and more formal 
addresses. 

5. One can hardly be long in Madagascar without observing 
that the people use a different motion of the hand in beckoning 
another to come near from that which we employ in similar 
cases. They do this by stretching out the hand with the 
palm downwards, moving the fingers toward them, instead of 
turning the palm upwards, as we should do. 

6. Again, in pointing out the position of anything near to 
them, the Hovas will not always trouble themselves to do so 
with the hand, as we usually do, but motion towards it with 
the mouth, stretching out the head, and protruding — in an 
ugly enough fashion certainly — the lower lip in the required 
direction. 

7. Another point to be here noted is the act which takes the 
place which kissing occupies among Western peoples. The kiss 
seems almost unknown among the Malagasy, except as intro- 
duced by Arabs and Europeans, and its place is taken by nose- 
rubbing, or rather of nosQ-pressing, a custom, as is well known, 
widely used by uncivilised peoples, and apparently a relic of a 
very primitive habit of recognising another person by scent or 
smell. The native word for this is manoroka, a verb derived 
probably from the root orona, nose (Javanese, irong ; Celebes, 
urong), the terminals na and ka being often interchangeable. 
The shaking of hands is not a native custom, but is being 
largely adopted where foreign influence prevails. 

'^ See Great African Island^ pp. 332-334. 



1 68 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

8. In a recently published journal of a missionary tour along 
the east coast of Madagascar, Mr. G. A. Shaw says : " Only a 
short time since, in a village in the south, pressure from the 
Hova being brought to bear on some Betsimisaraka to send 
their children to a school which was in the same village, the 
women went about with their hands clasped on their heads (a 
Betsimisaraka sign of grief), bewailing the loss of their children." 
In their ignorance of the milder Hova rule of recent times, 
they supposed that school training was only a preliminary to 
government service, as in the time of the first Radama (1810- 
1828). 

9. A piece of gesture language seems to be preserved in the 
Malagasy word for "blessing," or "benediction," which is tsb- 
drdnOy literally, "blowing water." This act appears now to be 
almost, if not quite, obsolete among the Hova ; but the word 
still commonly employed doubtless preserves the remembrance 
of an act formerly used by them in pronouncing a blessing. 
Some light seems to be thrown upon this custom by a very 
similar one described by the Rev. Dr. Turner, for more than 
forty-two years a missionary in the Samoan Islands, in his 
Nineteen Years in Polynesia (Snow, London, 1861, p. 224). In 
case of disease attacking a Samoan, the high priest of the village 
sometimes told the sick man's friends " to assemble the family, 
* confess and throw out' In this ceremony, each member of 
the family confessed his crimes, and any judgment which, in 
anger, he had invoked on the family, or on the particular 
member of it then ill ; and, as a proof that he revoked all such 
imprecations, he took a little water in his mouth and spurted it 
out towards the person who was sick. The custom is still kept 
up by many." I am much indebted to several Madagascar 
missionaries for the following additional facts connected with 
sign and gesture language amongst the Malagasy. 

In the ordinary salutation of the Hova, Mando akbry hiando ? 
(" How dost thou do ? ") the head is usually thrown up instead 
of bending it down. In expressing astonishment, usually with 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 69 

the word Odre ! ("Dear me!" or "Oh dear!") the fist is 
frequently held to the mouth. As Mr. Thorne remarks, the 
meaning of this gesture must have been originally to conceal a 
laugh, as it is also used when something funny has been said. 
In challenging, or expressing defiance, the Idmba, or flowing 
outer garment, is waved about in the air. Although hardly 
gestures, strictly so called, there are sounds used by the Hova on 
certain occasions which are not speech. These are a kind of 
" click," made by the tongue, and employed to express admira- 
tion or approval of public speeches ; and a deep humming 
sound, somewhat like " hoo, hoo," used when the sovereign is 
passing as a salutation to her. To spread a clean mat on the 
ground when the stranger enters the house is a usual sign of 
welcome. 

Mr. Price remarks that among the Betsileo the gesture 
referred to in paragraph i {ante) is carefully observed along the 
roads with the shortened form of address, Ombdy, or Ombdko. 
It implies respect, and especially humility, and is termed man- 
jbko. Even in a church superiors expect an inferior or younger 
person to show this mark of respect when passing. (2) The 
second gesture noted above is used every Sunday in the Royal 
Chapel, after the prayer for the queen, or the playing of the 
National Anthem ; also by the troops in distant parts of the 
island, who turn towards the capital and thus salute their distant 
sovereign, when the national air (which is simply our " God save 
the Queen," curiously altered to Tsidikinina !) is played by 
the band. It is also used to other persons in giving thanks, 
as to a senior or superior when any special request is desired to 
be shown. (3) With regard to the third {Milela-pdladia\ Mr. 
Price says, " This may not now be literally performed, but that 
it is still more than a phrase I know from the fact that an old 
woman once, in begging me very earnestly to grant her some 
request, said Milela-pdladia, 8ic., and at the same moment 
stooped down and stroked my boots with her hand, and very 
unpleasant it was. ' Mr. Peill also says of this custom that " it 



170 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

is scarcely true that it is now merely a phrase among the Hova, 
as I have seen it actually done. Queen's messengers sent out 
to a certain village were not, as they thought, received with 
proper respect ; they therefore left the village without having 
delivered the royal message. The chiefs of the village were 
dreadfully afraid, and followed after the queen's messengers 
with their hair all down (that is, with the numerous small plaits 
and knots unloosed) over their shoulders, dishevelled, and their 
Idmbas down below their shoulders.^ When they reached the 
royal messengers they at once fell at the feet of the principal 
one of them, a judge, and actually kissed or licked his feet, at 
the same time humbly begging his acceptance of their repent- 
ance. He yielded to their request, and returned with them. I 
have no doubt that while much less frequent than formerly was 
the case, the custom is still occasionally observed." 

Mr. Price further remarks : " For what purpose do all the 
people, sometimes when there is a great kabary (public 
assembly), and the queen appears, put down their umbrellas? 
It has been said that they do so whenever the queen spits, but 
whether that is a joke or not I cannot tell. More ridiculous 
customs are quite credible." " The use of the fingers in ' totting 
off' a number of heads or points in a discourse of private con- 
versation is very remarkable. They do not merely touch the 
left-hand fingers on the side with the right forefinger, but hold- 
ing the left hand out palm upwards, they pull up and lay over 
flat on the open palm the fingers one by one." ^ "In descrip- 
tions of persons, things, events, &c., they often take up little bits 
of stone or stick, or anything that is to hand, and lay them out 
in order to represent the different people, things, events, ideas, 
heads, &c., about which they are speaking. Frequently they 

^ These two acts are done not only at the death of a sovereign, but also at 
those of relatives and friends, and occasionally even the head is shaved. The 
hair is dishevelled for a long time, and children in the schools, and adults in the 
congregation, refuse to sing at all for a long time after the death of a relative. 

=" Malagasy children very frequently count on their toes, instead of their 
fingers. 



i 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 171 

make the talk much more emphatic by these means." " A loose 
woman may sometimes be known {i.e.^ when she is plying her 
trade) by her going about the streets with her face covered with 
her Idmba. I remember one case in which it was made a 
reproach to a woman that she, a stranger, walked through a 
certain town to the house at which she was to stay, ' with face 
covered like a harlot'" {cf. Gen. xxxviii. 15). The Idmba is 
also used to denote other feelings : " Note the covering of the 
lower half or more of the face with the Idmba when a person is 
sulky or sullen, squatting on the ground in silence. Here they 
may do this when they are simply lazy and not sulky, but they 
always do it when they are sulky." The covering of the mouth 
is also indicative of modesty or shame, often further shown by 
uncovering the feet and lower part of the legs. In giving 
assurances of loyalty and obedience at a public assembly the 
speaker often dances, flourishing his spear or sword, and throw- 
ing off the Idmba. " This is intended to express rage at and 
defiance of an imaginary enemy." Mr. Peill adds : " At the end 
of a period {i.e.^ of a public speech) they jump clean from the 
ground, and coming down stamp with both feet together on the 
ground, in order to emphasise what they are saying." " In 
walking together, friends do not go arm-in-arm, but hand-in- 
hand, or the hand of one may be thrown round the other's 
shoulder or round the waist." "The Betsileo in saluting a 
superior do not make the same gesture as the Hova. They 
bend forward and make a sort of scrape, at the same time 
laying hold of the forelock and tugging at it." 

Mr. Peill remarks : " In pointing to an object some distance 
away, I have often noticed that the Malagasy point the finger 
far higher than Europeans under like circumstances would do. 
They point in the direction of the thing to which they wish to 
call attention, of course, but up to the heavens in that direction, 
not towards the earth." " Another custom illustrating this 
subject is the indmpitdha, one wife imitating another to show 
that she is equally clever, both with her hands and feet. I have 



172 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

watched young girls engaged in this game with great interest 
and amusement, and I imagine that apart from the general 
object of the elder wife showing that she is equally clever with 
the younger, each gesture conveys some definite idea to the 
natives, illustrating the things in which the one is supposed 
to equal or excel the other." " I have seen Malagasy women, 
on receiving news of the death of a near relative, throw them- 
selves flat on their faces on the ground, and creep towards the 
bearer of the message, at the same time rolling in the dust, and 
tearing their hair in their grief" 

Mr. Thorne points out that there are many symbolic acts 
used by the Malagasy, which are somewhat connected with 
signs and gestures. Among these are the kiady^ or sign of 
ownership, or possession, or protection. This is, in fact, a mark 
of tabu^ or tapu^ and is usually a tall, upright stick, with a bunch 
of grass fastened at the top, and stuck into the ground ; although 
how this came to signify possession needs further inquiry. 
Something similar to this is practised by bearers, who often 
come before a journey is made and tie a piece of grass round 
one end of the palanquin pole to signify that they are engaged 
for it and will claim to carry. A road or path is also tabu-Qd by 
putting a stick or sticks across it to signify that those in the 
rear are to avoid it. Mr. Thorne further remarks : " Symbolic 
acts must at one time have been much more numerous among 
the Malagasy than at present. One naturally thinks of the 
piece of wood sent by Andriamanalina of Betsileo to Andria- 
nimpoina (King of Imerina), as his refy measure (about 5 feet 
8 inches to 6 feet, a measure formed by stretching out the arms 
and hands as far as they will reach) ; and of the large Idmba on 
which Andrianimpoina killed the bullock, not one drop of whose 
blood fell outside it, and of the Idmba afterwards sent by him 
with a hole cut out of the middle. Also of Andriamampandry's 
symbolic teaching of Andriamasinavalona.^ Among symbolic 
acts still customary I have thought of the following : — Spitting 
' See Chapter X. for fuller description of these symbolic acts. 



CURIOUS WORDS AND CUSTOMS AMONG THE MALAGASY. 1 73 

on noticing a bad smell (perhaps rather a sensible sanitary 
precaution) ; Ny viitsongo dia (lit., pinching the sole), symbol of 
a desire to share in another's good fortune ; Ny vtiala faditra ^ 
(throwing away some object which has a supposed connection^ 
often merely verbal, with disease or calamity), symbol of a desire 
to be rid of some calamity ; Ny misotro vbkaka (drinking water 
mixed with dust from a royal tomb) ; and Ny inively rdno 
(striking water with a spear, at the time of taking an oath to the 
sovereign), symbol of allegiance." 

^ See Chapter XIII. on " Divination," &c. 



CHAPTER IX, 
MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 

Animals — The ox — Birds — Insects — Fabulous animals — Fanany or Seven-headed 
Serpent — Footprints of giants — Trees and plants — Ordeals — Folk-lore of 
home-life — Lucky and unlucky actions — Sickness and death — Witchcraft 
and charms — Food and Fady of the Sihanaka — Snakes'and lemurs — Tabooed 
days, in clans, and villages — Good omens, for food, and wealth — Evil omens, 
as to famine, trade, poverty, and death — Weather prognostics — Various 
portents — D reams . 

IN one of the chapters of The Great African Island a number 
of particulars were given as to the popular superstitions of 
Madagascar. I shall not repeat these here, but give instead 
fresh facts of the same kind which have been collected since 
that paper was written. The first of these additional contri- 
butions to the subject is a reproduction of a short paper of my 
own contributed to the Folk-lore Record, i88i.^ The second 
is a paper by Mrs. Mackay, of the L.M.S. Mission in Antsiha- 
naka, on "The Food and Fady of the Sihanaka." And the 
third is a paper by the Rev. S. E. Jorgensen, of the Norwegian 
Lutheran Mission in Madagascar, on " Some Popular Malagasy 
Superstitions." These two latter papers were all contributed 
to the Antananarivo Annual, and by the kind permission of the 
authors I am allowed to reproduce them in this volume as a part 
of the present chapter. 

SOME ADDITIONAL FOLK-LORE. 

Animals. — Many curious customs and superstitions, it may 
be remembered by readers of the paper mentioned in the first 
paragraph, are connected with the largest animal found in 

^ " Some Additional Folk-lore from Madagascar." 

174 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1/5 

Madagascar, the humped and long-horned ox. The Sakalava 
of Menabe, on the west coast, not only seldom kill red oxen for 
food, but at their circumcision festivals, and then only, they kill 
a bull, instead of an ox ; and the child to be operated on is 
seated on the animal's back during the customary invocation. 
The royal tribes of Maroseranana and Andrevola, in the Fihere- 
nana province (south-west coast), used sometimes to employ 
human sacrifices instead of those of oxen. 

The tribe or clan of the south-eastern provinces, called Zafy 
Raminia, will not eat flesh unless the animal has been killed by 
the hand of one of their own tribe. 

The Rev. C. F. Moss relates that " a place called Analavory 
[between the capital and the north-west coast] was described to 
us as the burial-place of an extinct race of kings ; and it is said 
that every year, at the feast of the Fandroana [the New Year's 
festival, a very great occasion with the Malagasy], a herd of 
cattle gather of their own accord at the spot, whereupon the fat 
ones die of themselves without waiting for the butcher ; while 
the lean ones, led by an ancient cow, run away, to return to the 
same spot and go through the same course of procedure the 
following year. We were also assured that if we stood there 
and shouted, no matter how dry the day, rain would surely come." 

Omby or ornbe, the native word for ox, is an equivalent for 
" chief," " head," and the bull is held as sacred among the Saka- 
lavas. In digging out the foundations for a new gateway to the 
royal courtyard at Antananarivo, a few years ago, the remains 
of one of the former queen's fighting bulls were discovered, 
carefully wrapped in a red Idmba, the ample cloth forming the 
outer article of native dress.^ 

Among the Sihanaka tribe any one who sees a large black 

^ The close connection of the native name for the ox with many Malagasy 
words may be seen from the following examples : — 

Oinbalahinlfy, eyetooth ; lit., "bull-tooth." 

Oinbalahintoiigotra, heel ; lit., " bull of foot," 

Ombalahi-fandto, lit., " bull-pounder," a name given to the rice-pounder when 
used in the circumcision ceremonies. 



176 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

moth called Mkabemdso (i.e., "the enemy with many eyes," 
alluding to the eye-like spots on its wings) is believed to be 
liable to an attack of a disease called sbratra or tromba. The 
same consequence also follows seeing the bird called voi'ondreo. 

A native evangelist living among the same people had a 
hare-lipped cow and two rabbits. These animals caused much 
anxiety to the superstitious folks, a number of whom waited 
upon him, and requested him either to remove or kill them, 
as such creatures were tabooed amongst them, and would bring 
sickness and other calamities if allowed to remain. 

Among the Hovas a bit of folk-lore was connected with the 
whale. When an earthquake shock occurred they used to say, 
" Mivadika ny trozona " (" The whales are turning over ") and 
" Mampandro ny zanany ny irbzona " (" The whales are bathing 
their children "). 

Fabulous animals. — Some account was given in the chapter 
already referred to of a curious belief of the Betsileo (central 
southern Madagascar) in a kind of transmigration of souls ; the 
spirits of those of noble blood being supposed to enter a creature 
called fandny, variously described as a lizard, a worm, and a 
serpent, which is regarded with idolatrous reverence by the 
people. I My friend Mr. G. A. Shaw, who has resided for many 
years in the Betsileo province, has kindly given me some 
additional particulars as to this curious superstition. He says 
thQ fandny is supposed to be the result of the life of the princes, 
and to come from below the left armpit ; for the body, when 
dead, is bound tightly to one of the posts of the house, and the 
creature that appears in the liquid exuding from the body by 
the pressure applied is, they say, the life. This creature is 
carried to the nearest water, river or otherwise, which from that 

Oinbalahi-vola, " silver-bulls," are small ornaments of silver about an inch 
long, in the rude shape of an ox, worn about the wrist or chest as charms. 

Ombalahin' Andriamaiiitra, " God's bull," is the name of a bead. 

Ombwblavita, "oxen finished (?) money," are speckled cattle, frequently used 
for sacrifices and as presents to the sovereign or chief. 

^ Vide ante, Chapter VIII., p. 163. 



I 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 7/ 

time hecomQs/dcfy or tabooed. No more is seen of it (of course), 
but they think it is not killed, but changes into a snake or lizard, 
or some animal forming a connecting link between these two 
reptiles. Here native authorities differ, some asserting that it has 
legs, while some are uncertain whether the dona (a species of 
serpent) is not it. When one of these is found the chief people 
from the district assemble round it, and alternately ask it if it 
be not the /andnj/ of such-an-one, until it moves its head, when 
they consider that it has answered in the affirmative. It is 
coaxed on to a clean cloth, an ox is killed, and the blood set 
before the fandny, which is then carried to the chief village of 
the prince to whose name it is supposed to have answered. A 
great feast is made ; oxen are killed ; rum is drunk to excess ; 
and at last the creature is carried to the same tabooed water 
into which the worm said to come from the body was originally 
placed. The fandny, they say, can never die ; if decapitated 
another head grows ; if cut in halves the missing part is renewed ; 
but any one injuring it will die. The belief is dying out, espe- 
cially since such confusion of ideas exists as to what animal is 
really thefandny. 

While speaking of fabulous animals it may be here noted 
that there is, in Imerina at least, some trace of that widespread 
belief in the footprints of supernatural beings, giants, mighty 
men, and gods.^ Rapeto, traditionally known as a chief of the 
Vazimba, the aboriginal inhabitants of the interior provinces, 
has by the popular imagination been magnified into a giant, and 
some curious holes in rocks by the roadside, four or five miles 
north of Antananarivo, are supposed to be his footprints. A 
good deal of imaginative power is requisite, for they are shape- 
less cavities, probably produced by the action of rain-water. A 
village two or three miles west of the capital bears the name 
of this chief, Ambohidrapeto, 2>., the town of Rapeto. 

Trees and plants. — In the times when bull-fighting was 
common, the owners of the bulls held a plant called tsivd- 
^ See Tylor's Early Civilisation, pp. 114-116. 
13 



r/S MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

londriana in their hands to ensure victory. Concerning a hard- 
wooded tree called hazotokana^ the Malagasy used to believe 
that if any part of it were brought into the house the rice-pans 
would be broken. And formerly, the root of a plant called 
varikitia was brought by the father of a newly-born child (if the 
first-born), who held it over his head outside the house, then 
dashed it on the ground westwards, with the idea that the child 
was in some way or other benefited thereby. 

In addition to what was said about Malagasy Ordeals it may 
be noted that in the tangena ordeal the poison was occasionally 
given to dogs or fowls, instead of to the culprit personally, its 
effect upon these being the test of guilt or innocence. It was 
believed that certain charms could make the animals die ; in 
the case of a dog these were called tolakambbandrano. 

Although the use of the tangena ordeal was abolished in 
Madagascar by an article in the Anglo-Malagasy treaty of 1865, 
there can be no doubt that it is still believed in by numbers of 
the people. This was shown unmistakably in April, 1 878 ; for 
the prevalence of a very fatal epidemic fever led many of the 
people in a village only a few miles distant from the capital 
to resort to the tangena, several dying from the effects. The 
Government, however, promptly interfered and punished severely 
all the inhabitants of the place. Still more recently attempts 
have been made to revive the custom. 

Folk-lore of home and family life. — Among the Bara there 
are no midwives, or rather, the midwives are men, the husbands 
and elder sons doing all that is required at a birth. After 
giving birth to a child the mother remains in the house four 
days. 

At the commencement of the new year red earth used to be 
taken from some specified spot and put at the foot of the middle 
post supporting the roof of the house ; this was called sdntatdona, 
i.e., " first fruits of the year." 

On certain occasions a cord is directed by the diviners to be 
fastened from the south-west corner of the house to the north- 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 79 

east (the sacred) corner of it ; this is done as a sbrona or means 
of obtaining blessing, and is called tadivita^ z>., " finished " or 
" perfected cord." 

The Tanala (forest) people, as regards their way of eating, 
may be divided into two classes : from the boundaries of the 
river Rianany, going southwards, they eat with wooden spoons ; 
but going northwards, they eat with leaves. The Zafimanelo 
tribe lock their doors when at their meals, and hardly any one 
ever sees them eating. 

Lucky and unlucky actions, &c. — Of the river Fanindrona, 
in Betsileo, Mr. Shaw says that, although it is a splendid river, 
"on account of the superstition of the people deterring them 
from putting a canoe on it, it is one of the greatest obstacles 
to travelling to and from the capital in the wet season. In one 
itinerating journey the only way of getting the writer's goods 
across was by balancing them upon the native water pitchers, 
and a man swimming on each side propelling the cranky vessel 
forward ; and although scarcely a year passes without some 
being drowned, yet no inducement is sufficiently strong to over- 
come their superstitious dread of allowing a canoe to be used." 

Sickness and death. — Among the Hovas the rough bier on 
which a corpse is carried is called trdnovbrona^i.e., "bird's house," 
possibly from the idea of the spirit of the departed having flown 
away, like a bird from its cage. A whirlwind {tadio) is supposed 
to consist of the ghosts of the dead. 

The sacredness attached to royal names among the Hovas 
is extended after the death of the sovereign to everything 
connected with their tombs and funeral ceremonies.^ Thus, 
they do not say of a king that he has died, but has " retired," 
niiamboho, lit., " turned his back " upon his subjects, or has " gone 
home to lie down," modiinandry. His corpse is not called /dty, 
the usual word for that of a subject, but ny indsina, "the sacred" 
(thing) ; and it is not buried (alevind), but " hidden " {afenina) ; 
and his tomb is not a fdsana, but trdno indsina, " the sacred 
^ Vide ante, Chap. VIII., pp. 151, 152. 



l80 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

house," in which is hidden the silver coffin, which is termed 
lakambola^ "the silver canoe." Everything, in short, is specialised 
by a name different from that applied to the same thing in con- 
nection with the people generally, whether nobles or otherwise. 

The Rev. W. D. Cowan, in speaking of the epidemic of 
malarial fever in the Betsileo province in 1878-79, says: "One 
curious coincidence may be mentioned. The town and its 
suburbs were visited by an epidemic of catarrh. The natives 
at once said that locusts were near at hand. At this time we 
had heard of no locusts being in the neighbourhood, but, strange 
to say, they appeared in great numbers within the week." 

Witchcraft and charms. — By mixing charms with the dust 
a person had trodden upon it was supposed that a disease called 
raodia (rao ■=^ raoka^ gathered, collected, dia^ footstep) would be 
caused to that person. 

Of the Betsileo charms, Mr. Shaw says they consist " for the 
most part of pieces of wood about a span in length, cut from 
various trees, some growing only, it is said, in distant places, 
and hence costing considerable sums of money ; " and that he 
had in his possession between twenty and thirty ody^ of each 
of which he had ascertained the use. Some are believed in 
simply as medicine, the sticks being rubbed on a stone, and the 
dust thus grated off eaten by the sick. One is used as an anti- 
dote to any poison an enemy may have placed in the food ; 
while others are efficacious for curing cuts and open wounds, 
delirium, sudden illness, and as protection from thieves, lightning, 
crocodiles, &c. 

Of the Sihanaka^ the Rev. J. Pearse says: "In 1877 large 
numbers of the people wore a single grain of Indian corn around 
their neck as a talisman against a disease which, it was affirmed, 
a Tenrec (one of the Centetidce, hedgehog-like animals) had 
announced would appear. During this year a similar story 
agitated the people. In the month of February a report was 
circulated that a dog had spoken, and announced that a hurri- 
cane causing grievous famine would devastate the district, that 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. l8l 

immense hailstones would descend, and that even the heavens 
would fall. To prevent this calamity the people were told to 
get six black and six white beads, and to wear them round the 
neck, as that would prevent any harm overtaking the wearer. 
The result was that men, women, and children were seen with 
these twelve beads hung round the neck as a charm." They 
also wear two white and two black beads to cause rain to fall, 
but if the string be broken the charm is useless. 

THE FOOD AND " FADY " OF THE SIHANAKA.^ 

Of late years a good deal has been written in the Antanana- 
rivo Annual ^XiA elsewhere about the Antsihanaka province in 
N.E. Madagascar. But of the people, the Sihanaka, of their 
manners and customs, less has been written than of their 
country, and scope may still be found for a few remarks on their 
" Food and FadyT 

The Sihanaka are no exception to the rule in Madagascar as 
to their staple diet, viz., rice, which is plentiful and very easily 
cultivated ; but owing to the imprudence of the people, and 
probably also to their laziness, the supply sometimes runs short, 
when they are reduced to considerable straits. Those living on 
the eastern border of the province on the edge of the forest are 
in a less fortunate position than their neighbours with regard to 
their rice-fields, as very little suitable ground is available ; and 
when, to make up the deficiency, they plant manioc and sweet 
potato, the wild boars chiefly reap the benefit. 

But the food of the Sihanaka includes far more than rice and 
presents great variety and some considerable broadness of taste, 
as my readers will acknowledge when they hear that rats, 
snakes, and owls are included in the list of food-stuffs, not to 
mention crocodiles, and even cats ! To be just, however, it is 
right to state, that of these only the cat is strictly a Sihanaka 
dish, its flesh being a delicacy which they compare to goose. 

^ Vide Antananarivo Annnal, Vol. IV. p. 301 ct scq. 



1 82 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The crocodile was not originally used as food, as to eat its flesh 
seemed a too near approach to cannibalism ; but of later years 
some have come to consider it waste not to consume what is to 
hand in such abundance. With regard to snakes, their resem- 
blance to eels is the attraction. Rats and owls are only very 
occasional dishes, and not by any means generally appreciated, 
but the Sihanaka seem to have something of Radama II.'s turn 
of mind when he wished to know the distinctive merits of things 
of all sorts as food, and caused them to be tasted. 

Besides these very striking articles of diet, there are others 
which, to most of us, would be little more inviting, but which are 
eaten by most Malagasy, viz., the various animals, &c., found in 
the forest, including the different kinds of lemur, the fbsa, the 
wild boar, and many other creatures. Finally, and in common 
with the Europeans in its neighbourhood, the Sihanaka find a 
never-failing source of appetising food in the fish and wild fowl 
of Lake Alaotra, and their free indulgence in the former may 
prove evidence for the fish theory in leprosy, as lepers are 
plentiful in the neighbourhood of the lake. 

The first division of the title of this paper is a very familiar 
subject to us all, but as to the ^oxAfady^ it may be necessary to 
explain that it signifies that which is tabooed. Malagasy /^^ 
is a large subject, as may be seen from Mr. Standing's interest- 
ing account of it in the Antananarivo Annual (ydl. II., No. vii., 

1883). 

It is a pleasing fact, however, that while writing on th.e.fddy 
of the Sihanaka one is treating of a subject which is certainly 
losing weight with those whom it most concerns, for superstition 
in Antsihanaka is being gradually cleared away by Christianity 
and civilisation. 

As far as I can ascertain there are comparatively few things 
which are fddy common to all the Sihanaka ; of these few, to 
work their rice-fields on a Thursday seems to be the most im- 
portant as this may in no case be done. To build brick or mud 
houses is not permitted, death being the supposed penalty in 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 83 

case of transgression. To use hemp, either in the form of cloth 
or for smoking, is also universally tabooed. The last-named 
fady is remarkable from the fact that it is very unusual for the 
Malagasy to mifddy (verb from fddy) anything which is really 
injurious, and no doubt to smoke hemp, is so ; for instance, rum 
is never refrained from on the same grounds that other things 
are tabooed, that is by entire families and tribes. Many Siha- 
naka abstain most rigidly from pork, objecting to use ointment 
which they fear may be prepared with lard, and even refusing to 
carry a load which they suspect to contain it ; neither may their 
food be cooked in pots or pans previously used for cooking pork ; 
nevertheless they may eat the flesh of the wild boar, which seems 
rather inconsistent. 

Besides they^^ common to all Sihanaka, each family or clan 
has inherited a set oi fddy of its own ; so in addition to the uni- 
versal fddy for Thursday, there will be another day of the week 
on which nothing may be taken out of the house, the mats may 
not be swept, &c., &c. Some families may not sell eggs, and 
others may not sell anything which they have inherited, except- 
ing cattle. Various foods too numerous to mention are included 
in this class oi fddy. Others, again, abstain from tobacco, and 
there are some insects and birds which may not be killed, and 
certain woods which may not be used for fuel. The foregoing 
are family /i^, but there are some which pertain to individuals 
only ; and then again there are ^^fddy of places ox fddin-tdny. 

Separate villages, again, have their fddy, and certain things 
may not be taken into them. At Imerimandroso water-pots 
with broken rims, and rushes which have not lain overnight to 
dry after being cut down, are fddy, and may not be taken into 
the town ; also the pad of grass which a woman wears on her 
head when carrying her water-pot must be perfect, i.e., without a 
hole in it, or it comes under the same ban. At other places 
these things would be considered harmless, while other equally 
innocent practices would bring down all manner of evil on the 
heads of the inhabitants. Water also has its fddy, and to carry 



1 84 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

lard across Lake Alaotra is to ensure rough weather, to pour oil 
on the troubled waters might then prove a curse, it being too 
near a relation of the lard. 

Besides the universal y2?<^, iki&fady of families, of individuals, 
and of places, we have fddy for particular circumstances and for 
certain classes, and finally the fadin-bdy, i.e.^ the fctdy of medi- 
cines. In sickness it is usual to abstain from eating chicken even 
before taking the medicine, which will require abstinence from a 
great variety of things. Nursing mothers must mifctdy the flesh 
of calves if they have not been separated from their mothers, 
lest they should have to mourn their children as the cows do 
their calves ; moreover they may not eat a certain sort of banana 
until the baby can pronounce the name of it, neither may they 
look at a child's corpse. Young women must refrain from eating 
rice on a certain day every year. 

Of all \h& fctdy, however, the fctdin-bdy seem to be the most 
onerous, not to mention the preparation of the medicine itself, 
which sometimes involves twelve or more pots containing many 
and various leaves, roots, &c., being kept boiling at the same 
time. The following are a few of the fddin-bdy : the eating of 
anything in the form of herbs or vegetables, fresh beef, fresh fish, 
chicken, eggs and other wholesome foods ; allowing any one to 
enter the house of the sick wearing a garment not made all in 
one piece, or with freshly plaited hair ; or answering any one 
speaking outside the house. It is also fddy for the sick to look 
at the sun rising or setting, or at anything red, or to lie down at 
sunset. The traders from Imerina have introduced new fddy in 
connection with foreign medicines, such as iodide of potassium ; 
salt, rum, and cayenne pepper the people are told to refrain from. 
The traders do this, no doubt, to secure a better sale for their 
wares, for the Sihanaka have little faith in a medicine which has 
no fddy in connection with it. The very latest fddy which has 
come under my notice, and one I should think of recent inven- 
tion, is very peculiar : a child is not allowed to accept a picture, 
lest it should be followed by European ghosts ! 



ii 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 85 

SOME POPULAR MALAGASY SUPERSTITIONS.^ 

Many of the Malagasy beliefs to be here described show great 
resemblance to those which are found both in Europe and else- 
where. They are of some value for the study of the daily life 
and habits of thought of the Malagasy, showing what occupies 
their thoughts, and how they think. 

I. Good Omens ^ or Tokens of Good Luck. — The saying of 
Caesar that people believe what they wish to believe is, to a 
large extent, true, and they usually look out for signs of good 
fortune and prosperity. This the Malagasy seem to have done 
with no small diligence, for among the signs of what may 
happen which I have gathered no small portion refers to the 
good they expect to obtain. Thorough materialists they seem 
to be, for of the various good omens in which they believe the 
great majority refer to ohX^imxi^ food and riches. The following 
nine examples refer to food ; and that the four of these have 
reference to beef will surprise no one who has seen Malagasy 
gather round a slaughtered ox. The nine examples are as 
follows : — 

When eating sweet-potatoes, if some portion falls out of the mouth, it is a 

sign that one will get potatoes to eat. 
When eating potatoes, if some portion falls down, one will get manioc to 

eat. 
When eating manioc, if some portion falls down, one will get maize to eat. 
When eating maize, it some portion falls down, one will get rice to eat. 
When eating rice, if some portion falls down, one will get beef to eat. 
When eating beef, if some portion falls down, one will get honey to eat. 

The climax is of course clear ; we are proceeding from the 
simpler to the better sorts of food. Of what, according to 
Malagasy notions, is one class of food, roots and grain, viz., 
rice is the highest (" Rice is andriamdnitra " [god], said an old 
man once to me) ; then comes the other class, what is eaten 
with the rice, &c. {laoka), and of this class, honey, remarkably 
enough, is reckoned higher than meat. As meat, however, is a 

^ Vide Antananarivo Annual, Vol. II., No. viii., 1884, p. 27. 



1 86 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

very valued article of food, we find other tokens for obtaining 
it, for 

When one stumbles on going out, he will eat meat ; and so also will he do, 
When a fly comes into one's mouth, and 
When one treads on an animal going out. 

The Malagasy are very fond of money, and it is quite in 
accordance with what we should expect to find that they have 
several signs betokening that they will become rich. Some such 
lucky omens with regard to getting wealth are the following : — 

When the rice, while being cooked, makes a border. 

When the rice, while being cooked, swells in the middle. 

When one has a boil on the shoulder. 

If any one finds fifteen maize stalks standing in a row. 

If any one has red hair on the top of the head or on the nape of the neck. 

If any one does not arrive in time for the meal. 

Some omens refer to obtaining a certain kind of riches, as 
abundance of rice, as do the following : — 

W^hen a hedgehog {Trandraka) is not properly buried, the rice will grow 

well ; and this will also be the case 
When one gets sore eyes. 

Other events, the occurrence of which must be considered as 
fortunate, and for which omens are found, are the following : — 

When one has white hairs appearing while still young, he will live to be old. 
If, when going on a journey, one is met by a crow (Goaika), the journey will 

be a lucky one ; and so it will also be 
If one is met by the kestrel-hawk [Hltsikltsika ^) 

2. Evil Omens, or Tokens of Calamity. — Many of these are 
signs of calamity {ISza^ in general, as are the following : — 

When a Takatra'^ (the tufted'umber) crosses the village, some calamity will 

happen ; as also 
When the walls of a house crack in two places! opposite to each other ; also 
When a hen crows r; and 
When a hen lays small eggs ; and 
When a hen eats her own eggs ; and 
When one sees an Androngo (a small lizard) with two tails. 



^ Tinniincnliis Ncwtonii, Gurn. ^ Scopus umhretta, Gurn. 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 8/ 

Some omens have relation to famine, as the following : — 

When the dogs eat unboiled manioc. 

When the dogs dig up earth-nuts {voanjo).'^ 

When the opening in the Tsikinty's^ nest turns another way than is usually 

the case ; and 
When the cry of the cuckoo {Kankafotra 3), is heard, the rice will not grow. 

Some bad omens refer to trade and travelling, as do the 
following : — 

When a trader on his way out is met by a certain hawk {/iJuaka 4) he will 
have no success ; and 

When a traveller is met by a Takatra on the road, he will meet with some- 
thing unfortunate during his journey. 

Certain things are regarded as signs of coming poverty, as 
the following : — 

When some one comes in unexpectedly to a meal ; and 
When one has speckled finger nails. 

Several are signs of death, as the following : — 

When the eyelashes quiver, one will hear of death ; as also 
When one's left ear tingles, one will hear about death being near ; and 
When one's right ear tingles, one will hear about death being far off. 
When the antamba's s cry is heard near the house, somebody will die ; and 
When one is met by a snake, one will hear about death. 

The superstition about the cry of the antamba reminds us of the 
evil significance of the cry of the owl, believed in in European 
countries.^ 

3. Weather Prognostics. — Of these there are probably many, 
but I have only collected a few, as follows : — 

^ Voaiidzcia snbtervanea, Thouars. 
^ A species of Weaver-finch, Spcrnicstcs nana, Pucher. 
3 Cncnlus Rochii, Hartl. 

^ A species of Long-legged Hawk, Polyboroidcs radiatns, Scop, 
s A mythical animal. 

^ The screech of some of the Madagascar owls at night has probably given 
rise to this superstition. It is certainly fearful enough to suggest evil. 



1 88 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

When the swallow {S'idiiits}dnia ^) flies low, there will be rain. ^ 

When the screech of the owl [Katoroka =) is heard, drizzling rain (crika) ■ 

will fall. . 

When the lark {Sorohitra 3) makes a deep nest, heavy rain will fall. 
When the rain beats on the south-west corner of the house, there will be 

heav\' rain ; and 
When it beats on the south-east corner, only a little rain will fall. 

4. Other Portents of Various Kinds. — There are some 
portents where a remarkable likeness between the thing which I 
is regarded as a sign and the thing or event signified seems to 

be the main idea. Thus we are told that 

When a hen crowds, there will be a female sovereign ; and 
When any one having teeth set apart {\nakdka nlfy) plants maize, the plants 
will-grow far apart ; whilc^ on the other hand, if those who plant maize 
carry a child on their back, they will have produce " with many 
children," i.e., an abundant harvest. 

No less strange than these is the notion that 

If a woman maintains a crooked or bending posture when arranging eggs in 
a nest to be hatched, the chickens will have crooked necks. 

The Malagasy are a very hospitable people, and they have 
some signs which denote the arrival of strangers, for 

When the hens cackle at the door, strangers are coming ; as also 

When any one is digging manioc, and the root is struck by the spade ; and 

When people get sleepy in the middle of the day ; and 

When a spider falls down in the house. 

Two very amusing ones relating to household affairs are as 
follows : — 

If the walls of the house (when not well built) incline towards the south, the 

wife will be the stronger one in the house ; whereas 
If the walls incline towards the north, the husband will have the best of it. 

5. Dreams. — The Malagasy of course, as is the case with 
all other nations, notice their dreams and regard them as signs 
of what will happen to them. They are also troubled by their 

^ More exactly, the Edible-nest-building Swiftlet, CoUocalia francica, Gon. 

2 A name given to two species of this bird : the Madagascar Scops Owl, 
Scofs rutilis, Pucher ; and a Hairy-footed Owl, Ninox superciliaris, Vieill. 

3 Alauda hova, Hartl. 



MALAGASY FOLK-LORE AND POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS. 1 89 

dreams, and consider what natural causes there might be for 
them, so as to counteract the evil forebodings which some of 
them suggest. They " console their hearts " when they have 
had an evil dream by saying : " Winter dream, it is unmeaning 
chatter ; summer dream, it will be taken away by the streams 
(swollen to a larger degree than usual by the heavy rains) ; 
spring dream, the dry soil will absorb it ; autumn dream, we 
are too satiated (by the recently harvested rice), and it chatters 
to no purpose." 

In many cases there seems to be some connection between 
the dream and that which it is regarded as a sign of; some- 
times this connection is shown by the similiarity of the two, but 
sometimes by the contradiction between them, the dream really 
denoting the very reverse of what one would have supposed it 
to signify. A few instances, in which a certain similarity is 
apparent, are as follows : — 

When one dreams that he is going to cross a river and does not get over, he 

will soon die ; as also 
When one dreams that he is speaking with the dead,^ and submits to their 

calling for him. 
When one is ill and dreams that the dead bring him medicine, he will 

recover. 
When one dreams about blood, he will have a fight with some one. 
If any one dreams that he meets the Sovereign, he will get a high position. 
If any one dreams that his spoon is lost, there will be famine ; bitt 
If one dreams that he is buying a large spoon, the season will be fruitful. 

More often, however, the very reverse of what is dreamt of 
is believed to be about to happen, as in the following : — 

When one dreams that he has made a lucky hit in trading, he will lose in his 

bargain. 
When one dreams that he is eating with the dead, he will live long ; as also 



^ The Malagasy have a very strong belief in life after death. Very interesting 
are the words of Andrianampoinimerina shortly before his death : " My flesh 
will be buried, but my spirit and my mind will still be with you {i.e., his subjects) 
and Radama ;" and, "I will not go away, but shall. still whisper to him" (/.r., 
to Radama). — Malagasy Kahdry ; collected by W. E. Cousins (p. 7). 



190 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

When one dreams about a tomb. 

When one has lost anything and dreams that it will be found, he will not 

find it ; whereas 
If he dreams that he does not find it, he will find it very soon. 
If one dreams about a green tree, some one will die. 
If any one is ill, and some one else dreams that he is getting better, he will 

be ill for a long time. 
If one dreams that he is crossing a river where there are many crocodiles, 

he will prosper in the business he is undertaking. 
If any one who is far from home dreams that he has returned home, he will 

die on the road. 



In the other dreams which I have noticed there seems to be 
nothing indicating any correspondence between the thing dreamt 
of and that which is supposed to be signified by it. Some 
examples are as follows : — 

When one dreams that he is flying, he will die. 

When one dreams that he is out catching fish, he will meet with some 

calamity. 
When one dreams about a fight between red oxen, or 
When one dreams about fire, he will be conquered by his enemies. 
When one dreams about red soil (the soil here in the interior is mainly dark 

red in colour), he will come to poverty. 
When one dreams that he is falling down from a precipice (the dream of 

young people everywhere), he will be taken ill ; as also 
If one dreams that he is crossing dirty water. 
When one dreams that he is drinking brandy, he will get well. 
When one dreams about fog, he will lose his oxen. 
When one dreams that mice are pursuing him, somebody will take away 

his wife. 



I 



4 




BETSIMISARAKA WOMEN. 



CHAPTER X. 

MALAGASY ORATORY, ORNAMENTS OF SPEECH, SYM- 
BOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 

Folk-lore — Folk-tales — Proverbs — Kabary — Oratory and figures of speech — The 
desolate one — Mutual love — The bird — A divorced wife — Transitoriness of 
life — Bereavement — Death — Imagination — Boasting — The crocodile — A place 
for everything — Filial love — Friendship — Thanksgiving — Evil speech — Sym- 
bolic acts — The two kings — The heir to the throne — Riddles and conun- 
drums. 

THE most valuable contribution to our knowledge of Mala- 
gasy Folk-tales has been made by the Rev. Lars Dahle, of 
the Norwegian Lutheran Mission, who published at Antananarivo 
in the early part of 1 877 a volume entitled Specimens of Mala- 
gasy Folk-Lore. Except the preface and title-page, this volume 
is entirely in Malagasy, and is therefore a sealed book to those 
who are unacquainted with the language in which it is written. 

In 1877, several Europeans residing at Antananarivo formed 
a little society for the purpose of collecting and printing the 
Folk-lore of Madagascar, such as tales, fables and allegories, 
proverbs, public speeches, &c. Twelve numbers of the publica- 
tions of this society were issued at somewhat irregular intervals, 
the whole forming a volume of 288 pages (i886).i In addi- 
tion to the subjects already mentioned, this volume contains 
specimens of native riddles, and of rhymes which are a species 
of mnemonics, intended to aid in the learning of the numbers in 
arithmetic. Of these varied contents also I propose to give 
specimens and translations. 

^ Folk-lore aitd Folk-tales of Madagascar. L,M.S. Press. 
191 



192 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

In the year 1871 the Rev. W. E. Cousins and Mr. J. Parrett 
published a small volume of y6 pp., containing 1,477 Malagasy- 
Proverbs, a branch of native traditional wisdom in which the 
language is very rich. A second and much enlarged edition 
of this work was published in 1885, containing 3,790 proverbs 
arranged in alphabetical order, so as to be easily found. And in 
the year 1882 the Rev. J. A. Houlder completed a work upon 
Malagasy proverbs, arranging them according to their subjects 
under a number of heads, giving also racy English translations 
and numerous illustrative notes. After a long delay this care- 
fully arranged book is now in course of publication in the 
Antananarivo Annual. 

In 1873, Mr. Cousins published another small volume con- 
taining twenty-six Kabary or royal and other speeches and pro- 
clamations, dating from 1787 to 1872. These public addresses 
are not only of considerable interest as historical documents, 
but they have a great value as preserving archaic words and 
obsolete or obsolescent forms of conversation, and thus throwing 
important light upon the language. 

Three years later still (in 1876), Mr. Cousins issued another 
small volume containing native accounts of Malagasy customs, 
including the circumcision observances, the administration of 
the Tangena poison-ordeal, marriage and burial ceremonies, 
and those connected with the New Year's festival, &c. Use has 
been made of many of these in some of the chapters in the 
writer's book. The Great African Island {Txxikirv^x, 1880). 

Mention must also be made of a work in Malagasy, which 
was printed at the Jesuit Mission Press in Antananarivo at 
intervals between the years 1873 ^^^^ 1881. This is a publication 
in three crown octavo volumes containing altogether about 
2,059 pages, and is a History of the Kings of Iinerina (the 
central province), derived from native sources, that is, manu- 
scripts written during the last few years, and traditions. This 
work gives, in addition to the political history, a considerable 
amount of information about the native customs, as they are 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. I93 

supposed to have successively arisen from the eariiest times, 
including not a little folk-lore, and native beliefs as to supposed 
supernatural beings, divination, witchcraft, the idols, &c. 

Several articles containing information on folk-lore are also 
included in the contents of a Malagasy work entitled Isan-kerin- 
taona, or " Annual," but of which only two volumes (for 1 876 
and 1877) were published at the press of the Friends' Mission in 
Antananarivo. 

The substance of this chapter was given in various numbers 
of the Folk-lore Journal iox 1883 and 1884, as well as a selection 
from Malagasy folk-tales. But as the proceedings of learned 
societies are but little known to the general reader, I have 
thought it well to produce in this volume most of the informa- 
tion there given. 

Fuller particulars as to minor papers and articles referring 
to Malagasy folk-lore, folk-tales, songs, and popular superstitions 
may be found by those interested in the subject in an article in 
the Antananarivo Annual for 1889 (No. XIII. pp. 29-32), under 
the same title as this chapter. 

Section I. : Oratory and Figures of Speech. — The 
first of the nine sections into which Mr. Dahle's book is divided 
treats of Hain-teny Idvaldva, lit, " Somewhat lengthy clever 
speeches," i.e., Oratorical Flourishes and Ornaments of Speech, 
which are occasionally expanded into an allegory. As with 
many peoples of lively imagination, but who have had no 
literature, the Malagasy are, as a rule, ready and fluent speakers, 
and many of them have considerable oratorical powers. The 
native language is pleasant and musical in its sounds, full of 
vowels and liquids, and free from all harsh and guttural utter- 
ances ; and the mental habits of the people induce a great 
amount of illustration in their ordinary speech, which is full of 
proverbs and similes. In their more formal and public addresses 
these are also found in abundance, as well as allegories, fables, 
and figures derived largely from natural objects. 

14 



194 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Here is one of the first examples, which is entitled, 

The Desolate {one) forsaken by Friends. 

1 (am) a straggling piece of peel from the young shoots of the plantain 
tree ; but when I still had possessions, while I still was in happy circum- 
stances, then I was loved by both father's and mother's relations. When I 
spake, they were shamefaced ; when I admonished, they submitted ; so 
that I was to father's relatives their protection ^ and glory, and to mother's 
relatives the wide-sheltering sunshade ; and was to them (as) the calf born 
in the summer,^ both amusement and wealth, of whom they said : This 
one is the great voara (a species of ficiis), ornament of the field ; this the 
great house, adornment of the town ; this is protection, this is glory, this is 
splendour, this is boasting ; this will preserve the memory of the dead, for 
(he is as) wide-spreading grass in the deserted village, and succeeding his 
fathers. Yes, they thought me a memorial stone set up, and I was 
(received) both with shoutings and acclamation.s 

Nevertheless I am (but) a straggling piece of peel from the shoots of 
the plantain tree ; and now I am left spent and desolate and having 
nothing, and hated by father's family, and cast off by mother's relations ; 
and considered by them but a stone on which things are dried in the sun, 
and, when the day becomes cloudy, kicked away. Yes, O people, O good 
folks, for while I admonish you I also reproach myself, for I am both re- 
proached and openly ashamed. Wherefore, hark ye, take good care of 
property ; for when property is gone, gone is adornment ; and the lean ox 
is not licked by its fellows, and the desolate person is not loved. So do not 
waste the rice, for those whose planting-rice is gone, and who have to 
enter into the fellow-wife's house, are in sad case. Do not trample on 
my cloth, for I cannot arrange the cotton to weave another, and it is ill 
having rags to wear in the winter. 

It will be observed how large a number of figures there is in 
these few sentences ; some of the allusions are explained in 
foot-notes, but other points are somewhat obscure to those un- 
acquainted with the habits and customs of the Malagasy. 

Many of the shorter of these " flowers of oratory " have the 

^ The word thus translated means, literally, a post set up as a protection to 
taboo a house or piece of ground. 

2 That is, in the rainy season, when there is plenty of fresh pasture. 

3 Memorial stones are largely used in the central provinces, and consist of 
massive monoliths erected with immense labour and expense. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. I95 

sententious forms of the proverbs ; and others take the shape of 
a conversation between imaginary persons, whose names often 
afford a key to the sentiments they express. The language 
readily lends itself to such coinage of names ; some one of half 
a dozen different prefixes being joined to words or short sen- 
tences immediately turns them into proper names, each appro- 
priate for the speakers, whether male or female, old or young, &c. 
Very frequent allusions are made to fidelity to friendship, 
which is a strongly marked feature of the Malagasy character, 
as shown by the practice of brotherhood-by-blood covenants. 
Here is an example, entitled. 

Mutual Love. 

Let us two, O friend, never separate upon the high mountain, nor part 
upon the lofty rock, nor leave each other on the wide-spreading plain. 
For, alas ! that this narrow valley should part such loving ones as we are ; 
for thou wilt advance and go home, and I shall return to remain, for if 
thou, the traveller, shouldst not be sad, much less should I, the one left. I 
am a child left by its companions, and playing with dust ^ all alone ; but 
still should I not be utterly weak and given up to folly, if I blamed my 
friend for going home ? 

Some of the pieces remind us of the English nursery rhymes 
of the type of the " old woman who could not get home to get 
her husband's supper ready ; " as is the following : — 

The Bird who could find no Place to lay her Eggs. 

I (sought to) lay, says a bird, upon High-tree.^ The high tree was 
blown by the wind ; the wind was stopped by the hill ; the hill was 
burrowed by the rat ; the rat was food for the dog ; the dog was con- 
trolled by the man ; the man was conquered by the spear ; the spear was 
conquered by the rock ; the rock was overflowed by the water ; the water 
was crossed by little " red-eye " (a small bird). 

Several of the pieces in this section of the book refer to 

^ The common amusement of native children, equivalent to the "mud pies" 
of English children. 

* Here personified by the addition of the personal prefix Ra-, and the word for 
tree meaning strictly " the lofty one." 



196 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

divorce, and to the attempts often made to bring back to the 
husband a wife who had been put away. This faciHty is one of 
the least pleasing features of Malagasy society ; the power of 
divorce being usually in the husband's hands, and being often 
exercised for most trivial reasons, and effected in an absurdly 
easy fashion. It will be seen, however, in the following piece, 
that the woman was sometimes quite equal to her husband in 
power of repartee, and could speak with stinging sarcasm of his 
fickle conduct and heartlessness :— 

Sending home a divorced Wife. 
Where away, O pair of bluebirds ? are you going east, or going west ? 
If to the west, I will bind you hand and foot to tell to Raharimaso that for 
a whole year and throughout seven months thy friend has not bathed in 
warm water, but tears longing for thee have been his bath. Therefore 
say : May you live, says Ratsaralibbitsimbahofaty'' [that is, the husband], for 
thou art not forgotten by him, though the distance be great and though 
the streams be in flood. And when Rafaraelanandeferana [Mrs. Long- 
enduring], heard that, she said : Upon my word, I am astonished at thee, 
Andriamatoa [a term of respect to an elderly man or eldest son] : when 
you married me, you thought the road was not big enough for me, but when 
you divorced me, you considered me a mere nothing ; when you asked for 
me, you spread out like the broad roof of the house, but when you put me 
away, you folded up like its gable. So enough of that, Andriamatoa, &c. 

And so she proceeds to pile up figure upon figure to illustrate 
his ill-treatment of her ; telling him : 

Perhaps you think me a poor little locust left by its companions, 
which can be caught by any one having a hand. ... A protection (she 
tells him) can be found from the rain by sewing together the mat 
umbrella, but it is Jove that is spent, and love that is scattered, and love 
that has removed, and the cut ends of the threads are not to be joined 
together. ^ 

To all this the husband rejoins : 

Unfortunate that I am, Rafara, wife beloved, I sent unfit persons ; to 



^ There is some significance in this long name, but it is not quite clear to me 
from its literal meaning. ^ Refemng to the threads used in weaving cloth. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. I97 

get you home were they sent, nevertheless to keep us separate is what they 
have accompHshed ; so come home then, Rafara, for our children are sad, 
the house is desolate, the rice-fields are turned into a marsh, &c. 

Whether these efforts were successful is left to conjecture; one 
may hope that after such moving appeals the injured and indig- 
nant wife came back to her family ; especially since they are 
followed by this additional address by the husband to the people 
at large to help him out of his difficulty : — 

Second speech of Ratsaralibby. 
Help me, good folks, for the io\\\ I had all but caught has flown off 
into the long /grass, and the bird I had almost obtained for rearing has 
been carried off by the flood, and the bull I should have obtained for 
fighting has escaped to the top of the high mountain. So help me, good 
people, and say thus to Rafara : I will be humble in spirit without 
obstinacy, and will agree to what you have done ; for if thou art as the 
storm destroying the rice, let me be the tree trunk plucked up. And if 
thou art as hail destroying the rice, let me be the wide field on which it is 
scattered. And if thou art as the thunderbolt falling to the earth, let me be 
the rock on w^hich it dances. And if thou art as the whirlwind blinding 
the eyes, let me be the lake, substitute for eyes. Because gone is my 
obstinacy, for gentleness only remains, for there is no support of hfe, since 
Rafara is the support of life ; so send me home Rafara, lest I become a fool. 

In Malagasy philosophy, as in that of all nations, there 
occurs frequent mention of life and its shortness ; and in the 
absence of any certainty as to a future life, a sentiment some- 
what parallel to the old heathen saying, " Let us eat and drink, 
for to-morrow we die." For example : — 

Take your fill of Pleasure while you live. 
O ye prosperous people, O ye well to do folks, take your fill of pleasure 
while you live ; for when dead and come to the " stone with the little 
mouth " [the native tombs, among the Hova, are made of large undressed 
slabs of blue granite, in one of which a small entrance is cut], it is not to 
return the same day, but to stop there to sleep ; ^ it is not to visit only, but 



^ Here is a play upon native words (^mbdi-mandry) which are used alike for 
sleeping away from home for a night, and also for dying. 



198 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

to remain. The covering stone ^ is what presses down over one, the red 
earth is above the breast, a temporary roof and tent walls surround one ; ^ 
no turning round, no rising up. 

Another piece speaks of 

Things here on Earth not enduring: 

and after referring to the different leaves, fruit, and flowers of 
various trees, proceeds to moralise thus : 

Thou dost not perhaps remember the sayings of the ancestors : Con- 
sider, O young folks, your stay here on the earth, for the trees grow only, 
but are not joined together, for if they were they would reach the skies. 
But it is not thus, for they have their time of springing and of growing, 
and of being cut down. And just so with men : to them come prosperous 
days, and days of misfortune ; they have their days of youth, and of old 
age, and of death ; but those who die happy and in heaven follow Impoina^ 
and Radama,3 they are the fortunate ones. 

A characteristic feature in native ideas is shown by another 
piece, which enforces the doctrine that "It is better to die than 
to suffer affliction." 

Many of the compositions in this section of the book are in 
praise of wisdom and denunciation, of folly ; in fact, perhaps no 
people are more ready to give and receive good advice than are 
the Malagasy. It is universally recognised as the privilege of all 
to give admonition to others, even to those highest in rank, if it 
is administered in the form of advice or anatra. 

There are a great many references to animals in these 
admonitions ; almost every bird known to the Malagasy is used 
as a simile, and its habits are described with great accuracy ; so 
that a complete collection of all the references to the animal life 
of Madagascar found in the proverbs and fables would throw no 
little light upon the fauna of the island. 

^ The four stones forming the sides of the Hova tombs are covered in by one 
huge slab, called the rangolahy. 

^ Referring to the native customs at a funeral, and in making a new tomb. 

3 Hova sovereigns : the first of whom, also called Andrianampoinimerina, died 
in 1810, the second in 1828. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. I99 

Here is a curious piece in the form of a dialogue, exhorting 
those in sorrow not to hide it from their friends : — 

The Bereaved one questioned and attempting to hide (Sorrow). 
Who is that person before thee ? 

I know not, for I did not overtake him. 
Who is yonder person behind thee ? 

I know not, for he did not overtake me. 
Why then are you so erect ? 

I am not erect, but chanced to rise. 
Why then do you sob so ? 

I am not sobbing, but merely yawning. 
Why are you as if beside yourself ? 

I am not beside myself, but am thinking. 
Why are you as if weeping ? 

I am not weeping, but have got dust in my eye. 
Why are you sighing ? 

I am not sighing, but have a cold. 
Why are you woebegone ? 

I do not wish to appear woebegone, but my child is dead ! 
Then she bursts into a flood of tears and makes all the people sorry.^ 
Consider well ! do not hide your calamity. 

A fatalistic sentiment appears in the following, entitled : — 

Dying is not to be avoided. 
The guinea-fowl when flying departs not from the wood, nor, when 
hiding, from the earth, and the Fanbro ^ shrub dies on the ground. All the 
hairs of the head cannot bind death, and tears cannot hold him ; therefore 
give up the dead, for the earth is the forsaking place of the beloved ones, 
the dwelling of the living, the home when dead. 

Here is a bit of " tall talk," in which the powers of nature are 
invoked to help against an enemy. It should be noted that all 
the natural objects mentioned are personified by adding to them 
the personal prefix Ra-^ which can hardly be paralleled in Eng- 
lish by our prefixes Mr. or Mrs., &c., without a somewhat comic 
effect, which is quite absent in the Malagasy. 

^ When a death occurs in any house, the relatives and friends assemble in large 
numbers to condole with the family, to mitsapa alahelo, i.e., " to touch sorrow." 
^ Goinphocarpus fniticosus, R. Br. 



200 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The Far-reaching Power of the Imagination. 
The sun is indeed my father, the moon is my mother, the stars are but 
my subjects ; Betsimitatatra [the great rice-plain west of Antananarivo] is 
my rice-plot, the meteors are my guns, and the thunderbolts are my 
cannon, with which I will fire at those who hate me. 

Here is another example of the same habit of boasting of 
one's own power, in the form of a dialogue between two men : — 

Each Boasting. 
Says Rafaralahy \i.e., last male, or youngest son] : " Art thou Andria- 
naivo, who art child of Namehana : rising up, eating the aviavy ^ (fruit), and 
when stooping, eating ambntana "" (fruit) ; at evening playing with citrons, 
and in the morning bowling lemons ? " " Just so." 

Then says Andrianaivo [middle male] : " Art thou Rafaralahy, who art 
child of larivo : when poor, having money sought for by creditors ; riding 
on horseback yet not calumniated, and carried in a palanquin, yet not 
abused ? " " Just so." 

A careful study of these Malagasy sayings, together with the 
native proverbs, throws considerable light upon the notions of 
the people as regards morals. Many of them contain much good 
counsel as to the avoidance of various vices and follies, together 
with rebukes of the loose native habits with regard to marriage ; 
for example, there is one against forsaking one's wife to marry 
a richer one ! Then we have warnings against bad company, 
gluttony, dishonesty, and prodigality, and very many against 
lying and liars. The good and the evil man are compared, 
patience under misfortune is commended, and we are cautioned 
against trusting in appearances in the following allusion to the 
habits of the crocodile, the most feared of all the animals 
inhabiting Madagascar : — 

The Slow-going one is to be Feared. 
A red male crocodile going down the Ikopa with the stream, its sly 
advance unheard, its movements unobserved, lying still in the pools with- 



^ These are both fine trees, very common in the central parts of Madagascar 
they are species of Ficus, both bearing edible, though not very palatable, fruit. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 20I 

out diving, and lying in the water without paddling. So then, say I, good 
folks, perhaps the old fellow [lit., ''your senior"] is dead and therefore 
does not show up, or is somehow prevented and so does not return. 

But the people say : Thou art indeed childish and dost not perhaps 
consider that the crocodile, when he lies in the deep pools and does not 
dive, there is the warm place where he sleeps ; and when he lies still in 
the water, not moving a foot, that there is the place where he obtains his 
food. So let that teach you that the old fellow is not dead by any means, 
but has still an eye to business. 

This reference to the crocodile is but one out of scores of pas- 
sages noticing the habits of animals in these pieces, and v^^hich 
reveal, as already remarked, most accurate knowledge of their 
habits. In one of them the eels in the Lake Itasy are repre- 
sented as in council, expressing their disappointment that a stone 
breakwater, made to prevent a too great rush of water out of the 
lake, has not proved a place for their greater enjoyment, but 
where they may more easily be caught. In another piece the 
different cries and habits of various birds are compared, and the 
unfitness of all for carrying a message, one, the Vbrondreo {Lep- 
tosoma discolor, a peculiar species of roller), which has a loud 
distinct cry ; while as to others, Fitatra (a species of warbler, the 
Pranticola sybilla) would be always looking for food ; the Soy (a 
species of Nectarinid) would be too melancholy ; and the Fody 
(the cardinal-bird, Foudia madagascariensis), which goes in flocks, 
would always be flying off with its companions. 

This observation of bird life is also illustrated in a short piece 
which enforces the familiar English household maxim that 

Everything lias its Place. 

The whitebird (a species of egret [Ardea bubulcusl, which feeds on the 
flies and parasites of cattle) does not leave the oxen, the sandpiper does not 
forsake the ford, the hawk does not depart from the tree, the valley is the 
dwelling of the mosquito, the mountain is the home of the mist, the water 
holes are the lair of the crocodile. And the sovereign is the depositary 
(lit., " resting-place ") of the law, and the people the depositary of good 
sense. 



202 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Equally numerous are the allusions to the various trees and 
plants and their qualities, and the way in which they illustrate 
human weaknesses and follies. 

Love of children is a marked feature in these native sayings. 
They are called " the fat (that is, the best) of one's life " {iitenaky 
ny atna\ and are said to be " loved like one's self," &c. Equally 
distinct is the love of home and of one's native place : " Yonder 
road," says one piece, " is dreary and difficult, twisting about here 
and there, but for all that it is^ the way leading to the door of the 
house of father and mother." 

Still more fully and pathetically is this warm family affection 
expressed in the following lament of a captive taken in war, with 
which we may conclude this division of the subject : — 

Oh that I could see Fattier and Mother! 

Where away yonder, O bird, art thou speeding away by night ? Hast 
thou lost in the game, or art thou fined, that thou thus hastest away ? 

Neither in gaming have I lost, nor a fine do I dread ; but the road to 
be travelled I sweep over, and in the place of enjoyment do I rest. 

Ah, just so, O bird ; would that I also were a bird and could fly, that I 
might go yonder to the top of the high tree to look over and see father and 
mother, lest they should be dead, lest they should be ill ; long have we 
been separated ; for we are held in bondage by the people, and they are 
persecuted with gun and spear. We are slaves here in Imerina (the 
central province and home of the dominant Hova tribe) ; manure is our 
friend, the spade is our brother by blood, and the basket is our companion,^ 
Our necks wait for the wooden collar, our backs await the irons, and our 
feet the fetters. And father and mother sigh out their lives at Vohibe ; so 
salutation (lit., " may they live ") until we meet again, for long has been our 
separation. 

Most of the principal towns and villages in Imerina are noted 
for some circumstance or other, either in their natural position, 
or their productions, or the disposition of the people, as clever, 
covetous, or brave, &c. This is sometimes expressed in stinging 
proverbs, which are quoted by their neighbours with great gusto, 

^ Alluding to the constant work in the rice-fields done by the slaves, in digging, 
carrying manure in baskets, &c. 



ipp 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 203 

and are heard with equal chagrin by the unfortunate objects of 
these satirical bon-mots. Thus the people of Ambohipeno are 
held up to scorn in the saying, " The arums of Ambohipeno : 
they had rather let them rot than give one to a neighbour." 

The sixth section of Specimens of Malagasy Folk-lore consists 
of a short series of seven Speeches, under the heading of Hain- 
gom-pitenenan' ny Ntaolo rdha nifanctnatra izy, that is, " Orna- 
ments of Speech among the Ancients, when they mutually 
admonished." Although in Mr. Dahle's selection these follow 
the native songs, they would seem to be more properly placed 
next to the first division of the book, Hainteny Idvaldva, or 
" Oratorical Flourishes," as they partake somewhat of the 
character of these ; and we shall therefore consider them in this 
place. There is some little difference in the style of these pieces, 
and in that of the Hainteny Idvaldva ; and as they afford good 
illustrations of some features in native oratory and its profusion 
of figures, two or three of them may be translated in full, 
although some of the allusions are very obscure. 

A Flea for Friendsliip^ 

1. As regards ourselves and not other people ; for we are people born 
of one mother and people of one origin ; one root, one stock, brethren 
following the footprints of the cattle — not broken, even if torn ; a hundred 
measures of rice, mixed in the storehouse, houses built north and south (of 
each other),^ right and left hand, eyes and nose, rice in tvv^o measures, yet 
born of one person only. 

2. Therefore let us love one another, for those far off cannot be called ; 
for the distant fire, as they say, one cannot warm at ; and a hundred 
measures of rice cannot be carried (by one). 

3. There is none overtaken by another [that is helped by strangers] ; 
for if we call for other people's relatives, they say, it is night, but if we call 
our own relatives, then it is broad day,^ for look, even the name of Such- 



^ On the ground of relationship ; lit., " a plaiting of friendship." 

2 The old Hova houses were always built with their length running north and 
south, the front of the house facing the west, the lee-side. 

3 Referring to the strong and universally admitted claims for help in various 
circumstances that relationship involves. 



204 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

an-one is become " Not-overtaken-by-another " (or " Not-indebted-to- 
strangers "). 

4. Therefore as for thee, O Senior like to a father, thou art an ambbra 
tree for holding fast, and the thick forest for hiding, and the hoof for feast- 
ing, and the sun and moon, and the sky to cover over, and the earth for 
treading upon. 

5. Thou art the breast joining on to the wings, and palm of the hand 
joining to the forefinger, and knee joining the muscles. 

6. Thou art the sole vbamaintilany (seed) remaining, and the tree, sapling 
of the forest, and the bird substitute for meat, and thou art Chief of the 
place, and Such-an-one still living (amongst us). 

Thanksgiving Speech. 

Pleasing, friends ; su^allowed (i.e., acceptable), friends ; sweet, friends ; 
great and cannot be swallowed are ye. Sweet indeed is honey, but there 
are dregs ; savoury (lit., sweet) indeed is salt, but it is like a stone ; sweet 
indeed the sugar-cane, but it is like wood ; but the good done by you is 
incomparable. Nevertheless, friends, be of good cheer, for the good you 
have done will not be pleasing (only) on the day of doing it, like the feet of 
the cattle treading the rice ground,^ but will be pleasing taken home to 
sleep on, for it shall be rewarded when awaking ; for that is water bathed 
in to remove grease, and fat anointing to cause to shine, and cloth to wear 
to keep off shame. For money is soon spent, and other things come to an 
end, but friendship, that is enduring. 

Another speech is an admonition to companions who shirk 
their share of government (unpaid) service : — 

Short is our word. Sirs, a speech of the old, and if long, yet height 
without bulk, and if too short, then rolled about ; so let it be like the 
trench for sweet potatoes made by Ikarijovola, and the germs (fig. topic) 
extracted. 

With regard to yourself, Such-an-one ; the people (lit., " the under the 
day ") go upon the Queen's service, but thou hidest away in secret, and 
dost not go to do thy share, but only just now putfest in an appearance. 
So that here now thou actest like the little butterfly by the water : able to 
close up its wings, able to expand them ; thou dost like the water-fowl : 
black when diving, black when emerging ; for if thou dost like the little 



^ Cattle are employed to trample over the softened mud of the rice fields 
before planting. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 205 

crab m the hole : grasped by the hand and yet not got, sprinkled with 
water, and not coming out — then we detest that, Sir ! And now if it 
appears that what is under the eye is not seen, or is under the tongue and 
is not chewed, or near the nose and not smelt, or looked at and not known 
^-then we utterly detest that, Sir ! So, although your feet even may go^ 
and although your knees even may skulk along, and although your chin 
may touch , the ground, we will not let you off unless you perform the 
service for the honour of the sovereign. 

Here is another piece, the subject of w^hich is 

Do not use Evil Speech. 

1. It is not well that men should make a hammer with two heads : 
both speaking good and speaking evil. For it is an evil thing, friends, to 
act like the tongue of the ox, licking carefully the hump and licking also 
the feet ; able to enter into the nostrils, able to enter also the mouth. 

2. Take heed to the mouth, friends, for the mouth is a compartment 
(or room), the mouth is just like a piece of cloth — tearing this way, and 
tearing that way ; the mouth is Hke Alakaosy (the unlucky month), and if 
one does not butt another, one butts one's self. For the good (speaking) 
mouth is, they say, as a meal ; but the evil mouth is, they say, a thing 
cleaving to one. 

The evil mouth is just like the loin-cloth, binding its only 
owner. For there is no one guilty in body, they say, but they 
who are guilty in mouth are guilty. For the unguarded mouth, 
they say, is cause of calamity, and those who are free of speech, 
they say, reveal secrets ; so that what is done by the mouth, 
they say, endangers the neck. 

3. Take heed, friends, to the mouth, and do what is right, for that only 
brings lasting good. For if one does good when young, they say, they 
have something to take to old age, yea, even to take with them in death. 
For that has given rise to the popular saying, " Do good that you be not 
forgotten, even when you have mouldered away." For the good done, 
they say, is a memorial (lit., " a set-up stone "), and the good done is good 
packed up for a journey. 

It will be noticed in this speech what a frequent repetition 
there is of the word /lono, " they say," or " it is said " ; appar- 



206 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

ently guarding a speaker from personal responsibility for much 
of his counsel, and sheltering him under the authority of others. 
This is quite characteristic of the native mind, which shrinks 
from very direct assertion or accusation, and always prefers an 
indirect mode of statement. 

The symbols and figures which it will have been seen in the 
preceding pages to be a marked characteristic of Malagasy 
speech are not, however, confined to words, but are sometimes 
extended to actions. Every reader of the Old Testament 
scriptures is aware of the frequent use made of such methods 
of teaching by the Hebrew prophets, as seen in the Book of 
Ezekiel (iii. 1-3; iv. ; vii. 23 ; xxiv. 1-4; xxxvii. 15-17), and in 
I Kings xxii. 11. 

In Malagasy history there are some interesting examples 
of a similar employment of symbolic acts, especially before 
the general use of writing had made written letters common. 
Towards the close of the last century, Andrianimpoina, King 
of Imerina, had reduced under his authority a great part of 
the interior of the island, and, confident of his own power, sent 
a messenger to the principal chief of the southern central 
province, Betsileo, telling him that he was " his son " (a common 
Malagasy expression implying that one person is subordinate 
to another), and requiring him to come and acknowledge his 
father. The Betsileo chief, however, replied that he was no son 
of the Hova king, but that they were brothers, each possessing 
his own territory. The Hova returned for answer, " I have a 
large cloth (to cover me), but thou hast a small one ; so that 
if you are far from me you are cold ; for I am the island to 
which all the little ones resort, therefore come to me, thy father, 
for thou art my son." When the Betsileo chief received this 
message he measured a piece of wood between his extended 
arms (the refy or standard measure of .the Malagasy, between 
the tips of the fingers when the arms are stretched apart to the 
utmost), and sent it to the king, with the words, " This wood is 
my measure ; bid Andrianimpoina equal it ; if he can span it. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 20/ 

then I am his son, and not his brother." Upon Andrianimpoina 
trying it he was unable to reach it, for the Betsileo chief was 
long in the arms. But the Hova king would not give up his 
point, and replied, " My measurement of the wood is of no 
consequence, for kingship does not consist in length of arms ; 
thou art little, therefore my son ; I am great, therefore thy 
father." iCf- 2 Kings xvi. 7.) 

Still the southern chief was unwilling to submit, and sent a 
particular kind of native cloth ornamented with beads, with a 
request that an ox should be cut up upon it, as another sign 
whether he was to acknov/ledge the Hova king as his superior 
or not. This test also turned out to his own advantage ; but at 
length Andrianimpoina would have no further trifling. He sent 
back the cloth with a piece cut off one end of it, and a spear- 
hole through the middle, as a significant warning of his inten- 
tions unless immediate submission was made. The lesson was 
not lost upon the weaker chief ; he returned a humble answer, 
begging that he might not be killed, saying, " While it is to-day, 
all day let me eat of the tender (food) of the earth, for Andrian- 
impoina is lord of the kingdom." 

Something of a similar kind of symbolic act is related of 
Queen Ranavalona I. When she came to the throne in 1828 
there was a little boy not many months old at that time, of the 
true seed royal, and descended from the line of the ancient 
kings. The queen then announced that she had made this 
■boy her adopted son, and that he should be her successor ; even 
if she should have children of her own, his right to the throne 
should remain good. Afterwards she had a son of her own, 
whom she named Rakoton-dRadama ; many thought that her 
own son would succeed her, but the declaration in favour of the 
other was never rescinded, and hence arose much animosity 
between the two princes. When the queen became old and 
feeble, the subject of the succession came up, and she settled 
it in a singular way, substantially as follows : — She held a 
meeting of her officers, judges, and heads of the people, with 



208 MADADASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

great solemnity, within the palace, when she announced her 
intention of making a valuable present to each of the two 
princes. Two fine vases or covered vessels were placed on the 
table, and the two young men were called in ; the elder was 
first directed to choose which he would have. He did so, and 
on opening the vase it was found to contain some beautiful 
gems and valuable ornaments. The younger, her own son, 
then opened his vase, and found it contained only a handful 
of earth. The queen then addressed the assembly, saying that 
the elder prince was to be advanced to high honour and riches 
in the land ; but, as the land could not be divided, the younger 
prince, who had received from God the handful of earth, 
should be her successor. (He eventually became king under 
the name of Radama H., but only reigned about eighteen 
months.) 

Section H. : Riddles and Conundrums. — The second 
division of Mr. Dahle's book consists of about three hundred 
Malagasy proverbs, here called " Shorter clever Speeches re- 
sembling Proverbs" ; but, as this branch of native wisdom and 
observation really requires a separate paper in order to do it 
justice, we shall not here give extracts from this part of the 
book. Besides which, it will be necessary to take illustrations 
from larger collections than this supplementary one from the 
work we are chiefly using as a text-book. 

The third and fourth sections of the book comprise a small 
collection of Malagasy riddles and conundrums, Fampanonbnana 
and Safidy, the latter meaning " choosings," two somewhat 
similar things being offered for choice in enigmatical language. 
Such playing upon words is a favourite amusement of the 
people ; and, as some of them show considerable shrewdness a 
few examples may be given, all of them beginning with the 
question, Inona dry izdny ? (" What then is this ? "). 

I. At night they come without being fetched, and by day they are lost 
without being stolen ? 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 209 

The stars ; for, according to the common belief, they go 
completely away from their places by day. 

2. Cut down, and yet not withering ? 
Hair, when cut off. 

3. Six legs and two feet (lit., " soles") ? 

Money scales, which have always three strings (legs) for each 
pan, which is called in native idiom its " tongue," but in the 
riddle is compared to a foot. 

4. Lying on the same pillow, but not on the same bed ? 

The rafters of a roof which lean on the same ridge-piece (or 
pillow), but rest (that is, the opposite sides) on different wall- 
plates (or beds). 

5. Coarse rofia cloth outside and white robe inside ? 

The manioc root, which has a brown skin, but very white 
floury substance, here contrasted with the ordinary native habit 
of wearing coarse and often dirty clothing below, and a fine 
white cloth or lamba over all. 

6. If boiled, never cooked ; but if roasted, ready directly ? 
Hair, 

7. Cannot be carried, but can easily be removed ? 

The public road ; for, until quite recently, there have been no 
rights of way in Madagascar, and any one can divert a path as 
he may please. 

8. Fetch the dead on which to place the living ? 

Ashes and fire, alluding to the common native practice of 
fetching a live coal or two in a handful of ashes. 

IS 



210 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

9. Standing erect he gazes on heaven (lit., " the Creator ") ; stooping 
down he gazes on the oxen's footprints ? 

Rice^ which while growing stands erect, but when ripe bends 
downwards. 

10. Its mother says, Let us spread out our hands, but its children say, 
Let us double up our fists ? 

The full-grown fern and the young fern shoots^ alluding to the 
rounded knobs at the heads of the latter, compared with the 
outspread fronds of the plant when full grown. 

11. The foot above the leg ? 

The leaves of the horlrika^ an edible arum, whose broad leaf is 
compared to a foot and its stalk to a leg. 

12. Cut, and yet no wound seen ? 
A shadow and water. 

13. The mother says, Let us stand up, but the children say, Let us lie 
across ? 

A ladder and its rungs; the latter are called " children of the 
ladder " {zana-tbhatrd). 

14. Has a mouth to eat with, but has no stomach to retain food ? 

A pair of scissors. A cutting edge is called in native idiom 
its " tongue " {leld). 

15. God's little bag, whose stitching is invisible ? 
An egg. 

16. Living on dainties, yet never fat ? 

A lampstand^ which is continually fed with fat. 



ORATORY, SYMBOLIC ACTIONS, AND CONUNDRUMS. 211 

17. Earth under the person, the person under dry grass, dry grass 
under water, and water again surrounded by earth? 

A water-carrier and the waterpot he {or she) carries^ together 
with a ring of dry grass used as a pad for the waterpot, the 
water carried, and the earthen siny or pot enclosing the water. 

18. When the Httle one comes the great one takes off its hat ? 

The great store waterpot in a house^ from which the straw 
cover or hat is removed when water is drawn with a horn or tin 
ladle. 

19. Dead before it begins to bluster ? 

A drum^ referring to the bullock's skin of which it is made. 

20. Many shields, many spears, yet cannot protect wife and children ? 

The lemon tree^ alluding to the spines on the branches and 
the round fruits. 

In the appendix to the book three specimens of conundrum 
games are given, the custom being for the proposer to mention 
first a number of things from a dozen to thirty, calling upon the 
rest of the party to guess what they are when he has done. In 
the first of these a number of insects, birds, and household 
objects are mentioned by some more or less vague description 
of them, such as : Adornment of the sovereign ? The people. 
Horns {i.e.^ protection) of the people? Guns. Top-knot of 
the town ? A big house. Two-thirds of his sense gone before 
he gets arms and legs ? A tadpole^ when it changes to a frog ; 
&c. 

In the second game all the different parts of an ox are 
described in an enigmatical way, thus : God's pavement ? Its 
teeth. Two lakes at the foot of a tree ? Its eyes. Continually 
fighting but never separating ? Its lips. Blanket worn day and 
night and can't be torn ? Its skin ; Sec. 

In the third game occur the following: Fragrance of the 
forest ? Ginger. Fat of the trees ? Honey. The lofty place, 



212 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

a safe refuge from the flood ? Antananarivo. The lofty place 
good for sheltering? Ambbhimdnga^ Rising up and not 
questioned ? The roof-posts of a house : for a native, when 
rising up from the mat, would invariably be asked, Ho aiza 
moa hianao ? (" Where are you going ? "). 

' Because of the woods which clothe the slopes of the hill. 



CHAPTER XL 

MALAGASY SONGS, POETRY, CHILDREN'S GAMES, AND 
MYTHICAL CREATURES. 

Songs to the Sovereign — Dirges — Sihanaka laments — Ballad of Benandro — 
Friendship — Children's games — Rasarindra — Soamiditra — Sakoda — 
"Leper" game — "Star-killing" — New Year's games — Counting games — 
Marvellous creatures — Songdmby — Fanaiiy, or Seven-headed Serpent — 
Tokandia, or " Single-foot " — Kindly — Dona or Plly (serpent) — Llilomena 
(Hippopotamus ?) — Angalapona — Siona. 

SECTION I. : Songs.— Next in order in this collection of 
folk-lore we find a number of native songs or Hiran' ny 
Ntaolo (" Songs of the Ancients "). The Malagasy people are 
very fond of singing and of music, and have a very correct ear 
for harmony. They like singing in parts, and when they hear a 
new tune will often improvise a tenor, alto, or bass accompani- 
ment. The native tunes are somewhat plaintive, and are often 
accompanied with the regular clapping of hands and the twang- 
ing of a rude guitar or other instrument On moonlight nights 
the children and young people will stay out of doors until the 
small hours of the morning, singing the native songs, in which 
they take immense delight. It will be seen from the following 
specimens that although these songs are not rhymed or metrical, 
they have nevertheless a certain rhythmical " swing " or flow, 
and a parallelism of structure, and are arranged in somewhat 
regular form as regards couplets and stanzas. 

Several of these songs are in praise of the sovereign, and 
were chiefly composed in honour of the persecuting Queen 
Ranavalona I., who reigned from 1828 to 1861. In heathen 



214 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

times, that is, until the accession of Queen Ranavalona II., 
in 1868, it was customary to salute the sovereign as the 
"God seen by the eye," the visible divinity {Andrlamanitra 
hita mdso). Here is one of these laudatory effusions addressed 
to the former queens : — 

1. Salutation, Rabodonandrianimpoina ! ^ ' 
Suns (there are) not two ; 

Suns but one only (namely), , y 

Rabodonandrianimpoina ! ij I 

2. Going to Imanga,^ she's no stranger ; 
Coming to larivo,^ sovereign of the land. 

3. A shield of beaten gold ; 

Rising up (she is) light of the heaven ; 
Stooping dovim, lamp of the earth. 

Another song is in more regular form, consisting of six 
stanzas of five lines each : — 

1. Rabodonandrianimpoina. 
South of Ambatonafandrana,3 
North of Ambohimitsimbina, 
West of Imandroseza, 
East of Ambohijanahary. 

2. May you Hve, Rabodo, 
And Ramboasalama-Razaka,'* 
And Rakoto (son of) Radama ; s 
And the whole (royal) family, 
Not to be counted up. 

Some of these songs are wordy and full of repetitions, 
especially in the choruses, which are very much in what we 
should call, in English, the " tra-la-la " style ; but several are 
composed in a grave and serious strain, some enforcing the 

* This was the official and semi-sacred name of the queen. 
= Shortened forms of Ambohimanga and Antananarivo, the ancient and 
present capitals. 

3 This and the three following words are the names of the northern, southern, 
eastern, and western portions of the capital city, the royal palaces being in the 
centre, and on the summit of the long rocky ridge on and around which the 
city is built. 

4 The queen's nephew, and heir to the throne until the birth of her son ; see 
p. 207. 

5 Her son, afterwards king as Radama II. (1861-1863) ; see p. 208. 



\ 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 21 5 

honour due to parents, others expounding the nature of true 
friendship. In one of these latter the hearers are cautioned not 
to make " mist friendship," which soon dissolves ; nor " stone 
friendship," which cannot be joined again if broken ; but to 
form " iron friendships," which can be welded again if severed ; 
or " silk friendship," which can be twisted in again ; not " tobacco 
friendship," liked but not swallowed ; nor " door friendship," 
liked indeed, but pushed to and fro ; and so on. 

As in the proverbs and oratorical pieces, so also in some of 
these songs, the different places in the central province are 
referred to, in some cases with a punning on their names, to the 
effect that although they may be called So-and-so, those only 
who act in accordance with the name have truly such-and-such 
qualities. Thus : — 

A place-name is Tsianolondroa (lit., " Not-for-two-people "); 
Yet it's not the place is (really) Tsianolondroa, 
But 'tis the wife who is "not-for-two people." 

A place-name is Ambohipotsy (White-village) ; 
Yet it's not the place is (really) Ambohipotsy, 
But those who hate uncleanness arc white. 

A place-name is Ambohibeloma (Village-of-farewell) ; 
Yet it's not the place is (really) Ambohibeloma, 
But it's those who go home who say, Farewell. 

Among these Malagasy songs are some called sasy^ which 
are employed as dirges for the dead. An example given by 
Mr. Dahle consists of five different strains, the first of which is 
in three stanzas ; of these the second may be given as a 
specimen : — 

E, malahelo 6 ! e malahelo 6 ! Ah, sorrowful O ! ah, sorrowful O ! 

Tomany alina ! Weeping by night ! 

E, malahelo 6 ny vadiny etoana ! Ah, sorrowful O ! is here his wife ! 

Tomany alina ! Weeping by night ! 

E, malahelo 6 ny zanany etoana ! Ah, sorrowful O ! are here his children ! 

Tomany alina ! Weeping by night ! 

E, malahelo 6 ny havany etoana ! Ah, sorrowful O ! are here his relatives I 

Tomany alina ! Weeping by night ! 
E, malahelo 6 ny ankiziny etoana ! Ah, sorrowful O ! are here his slaves ! 

Malahelo izy rehetra ! Sorrowful are they all ! 



2l6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The following description of the burial customs and chants 
of the Sihanaka tribe is translated from the account given by 
an intelligent young Hova evangelist who lived among them for 
three years (1867-1870): — 

" Their customs when watching a corpse are as follows : A 
number of women, both young and old, sit in the house con- 
taining the corpse, and the chief mourners weep, but the rest 
sing and beat drums. There is no cessation in the funeral 
customs and singing day or night until the burial, although that 
sometimes does not take place for a week, in the case of wealthy 
people. The dirges sung on these occasions are distressing and 
strange to hear, and show plainly their ignorance of the future 
state and of what is beyond the grave; for the dead are termed 
* lost ' (very), lost as people who are left by their companions, 
and do not see the way to go home again ; and death they look 
upon as the messenger of some hard-hearted power, who drives 
hard bargains which cannot be altered, and puts one in extreme 
peril (lit., ' in the grip of a crocodile'), where no entreaties 
prevail. The dead they call ' the gentle (or pleasant) person ; ' 
and they will not allow his wife and children and all his relatives 
to think of anything but their bereavement, and the evil they 
have to expect from the want of the protection they had from 
the dead ; for now ' the pillar of the house on which they leaned 
is broken, and the house which sheltered them is pulled down 
and the town they lived in is destroyed, and the strong one they 
followed is overcome.' And after that they declare that the 
living are in trouble, and seem to agree that it had been better 
not to have been born. 

" While they are yet singing in the manner just described, 
a man goes round the house and sings a dirge in a melancholy 
tone, upon hearing which those in the house stop suddenly and 
are perfectly still. Then the one outside the house proceeds 
rapidly with his chant, as follows : — 

O gone away ! O gone away, oh ! 

Is the gentle one, O the gentle one, oh 1 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 217 

Ah, farewell, ah, farewell, oh ! 
Farewell, oh ! farewell to his house ! 
Farewell, oh ! farewell to his friends ! 
Farewell, oh ! farewell to his wife ! 
Farewell, oh ! farewell to his children ! 

Then those within doors answer, ' Haie ! ' as if to say, Amen. 

" Then they inquire and reply as follows, those outside 
asking, and the others in the house answering : — 

What is that sound of rushing feet ? 

The cattle. 
What is that rattling chinking sound ? 

The money. 
What is making such a noise ? 

The people — 

referring to the property of the deceased. Then the one 
outside chants again : — 

O ! distressed and sad are the many ! 

O ! the plantation is overgrown with weeds ! 

O ! scattered are the calves ! 

O ! silent are the fields ! 

O ! weeping are the children ! 

Then those in the house answer again, ' Haie ! ' 
" Then the one outside the house again sings : — 

O gone away, gone away, is the gentle one ! 
Farewell, oh ! farewell," &c., &c. 

The longest piece in Mr. Dahle's collection of songs is a 
kind of ballad, in forty-four stanzas of three lines each. It 
relates the fortunes of an only son called Benandro, who would 
go off to the wars, notwithstanding the entreaties of his father 
and mother. Of course he at last overcomes their opposition, 
and goes away with a confidential slave, but soon comes to 
grief, for he is taken ill, dies on the road, and the slave has, 
according to native custom, to bring back his bones to his 
disconsolate parents, who are ready to die with sorrow at 
their loss. Although full of repetitions it has a swinging. 



2l8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

almost rhythmical, flow, very like some of the old English 
ballads, as will be seen by a few specimen verses : — 

I. Benandro a darling son, 
Benandro a darling son, 
Benandro a dearly loved one. 

^ 2. Then rose, say I, Benandro O ! 

Besought his mother O ! 
Besought his father O ! 

3. O pray do let me go, 

pray do let me go ; 

For gone are all the young men, O ! 

12. Then answered back his father, O ! 
Then spake to him his mother, 

" Stay here, O piece of my life. 

13. The road you go is difficult, 
Diseases dire will cut you off, 
Stay here, do thou stay here. 

14. The insects too are numerous, 
The fever too is dangerous, 
Stay here, O piece of my life.'' 

However, he goes away under the charge of Tsaramainty 

(" The Good Black "), who is charged to nurse him if ill, to 

feed him when hungry, to be, in fact, in the place of his father 

and mother. But falling ill he remembers with sorrow his self- 

willedness, gives directions to Tsaramainty to take his "eight 

bones," that is, the principal bones of the four limbs, to his 

parents. Their grief at hearing of his death is pathetically 

described : — 

Gone indeed is Benandro O ! 
Gone, and will return no more ? 
Take me to thee, Benandro O ! 

1 grieve for thee, Benandro O ! 
I long for thee, Benandro O ! 
Take me with thee, Benandro O ! 

Here is one of those moral exhortations in which the Hova 
Malagasy delight : — 

Exhortation to Friendship. 
I. Let the living love each other ; for the others (the dead) cannot 
attain it ; for the others are gone home. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 219 

2. Let the living love each other ; for the dead are not companions ; 
for the dead belong to the dead, the living belong to the living ; for the 
dead cannot be hoped for, but the living can be hoped for. 

3. Let the living love each other ; for the kind-hearted attain (life's) 
end ; people love what touches the heart ; and remorse does not come 
before (the deed), but after ; and it is you (O men) who shall be full of 
remorse, who, angry, give up your heart (to vengeance) ; but for us, we 
suffer no remorse ; when angry, we can be pacified, for vengeance which 
gets the mastery becomes a parent of much guilt. 

4. Let the living love each other ; and do not build two houses too 
distant ; for the distant (neighbour) cannot be called in, but the near will 
be preferred, and the many (together) are happy ; for ants consume a 
small store. 

5. Let the living love each other ; do like the locusts : when fat, they 
fly off together. 

Section II.: Children's Games. — The next division of 
our text-book treats of Children's Games, ^^ Lalaon' ny Ankizy'' 
and as these are not without interest as illustrations of national 
habits and ideas, a few extracts may be given. There is a short 
introduction, evidently from a native source, describing the 
way in which Malagasy children play : — Two or three joining 
together go to fetch their companions, the parents saying, " Go 
and play, for here are your friends calling you, for it is bright 
moonlight " (lit., " moonlight (is) the day "). And so they all go 
on to other houses until a number are assembled, and they 
choose some spacious piece of ground. All having come 
together, they find out who of their companions are absent, 
two or three, or more, who are lazy and won't come, and these 
they make fun of, singing out, " Those who won't play because 
all their thoughts are about eating, friends of the iron cooking- 
pot ; take care you don't choke with a little bit of skin." Those 
indoors hearing this, answer, " That's all very fine ; you see our 
fat fowls, and so say, ' Come and play.' " (These children who 
don't play are often still killing fowls or geese, or cooking their 
share, the gizzards and livers, and feet and heads.) So when 
they go out, either that evening or on the following day, they 



220 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

are saluted with shouts of " Stuffed with gravy, Ikalovy ! 
Stuffed with gravy, Ikalovy ! " and also, " Keep by yourselves 
like lepers, O ! " 

The first play on the list is called Rasarindra^ the meaning 
of which word is not very clear, but the game seems very like 
the common game of English children called " Fox and 
Geese." 

Rasarlndra. 

They all stand in a row, every one with his or her ^ lamba (the outer 
cloth) tightly girded round the waist, the tallest in front, and the younger 
and weaker behind them, each taking hold of the tightly-bound dress of 
the one in front. Then one who is biggest is chosen to catch the rest, 
and this one is called " the robber." And another of the big ones is 
chosen to be " children's mother," to take care of the little ones. As soon 
as all are arranged, the " robber " calls out, " Where is Such-an-one for 
us ? " mentioning first those who are hindmost. Calling out thus she 
comes near to the mother, who answers, "We won't give up Such-an- 
one." Then touching the biggest one, she says, " Where is the children's 
mother for us ? " Then they all shout out, " We won't give up children's 
mother." Then the catcher calls out again, "Where then is our little 
lamb ? " So the youngest at the end of the line answers " Meh " (imitating 
the bleat of a lamb). Then the catcher replies, " Here's our little lamb," 
and does her best to catch the youngest and last of the row. Having 
caught this one, she then tries to catch those next in the line, one after 
another, until they are all caught, the children's mother meanwhile pro- 
tecting them all in her power. 

Then follow descriptions of two games somewhat resembling 
what is known in England as " Oranges and Lemons," and 
ending with " Here comes a light to light you to bed ; here 
comes a chopper to chop off the last man's head." They are 
called 

Sbamlditra (lit., " Good entering ") No. i. 
Two of the tallest in the party stand up, and face each 

^ These games are chiefly practised by girls, or by girls and very young 
boys. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 221 

other, leaving a space between them for a gateway ; and 
clapping their hands together they sing : — 

Soamiditra e, miditra e, e miditra e ! 
Good entering O, entering O, entering O ! 

Then the lesser ones form a line and take fast hold of each 
other, and stooping down, sing out : — 

Valala manjoko a ; Locusts stooping O ! 

Kitraotrao ! Fight, fight ! 

Valala mandry a ; Locusts lying down O ! 

Mandriaria ! Lie down, down ! 

Aud so they go on, entering the gateway formed by the two 
tall ones, and when the least come up to them then these two 
turn round also. 

Soamiditra No. 2. 

The second variation of the above game has more singing 
in it ; but the children arrange themselves in the same way, 
the two tallest ones and the rest singing alternately as 
follows : — 

Manasa, relahy, manasa e ? We bid (you), friends, we bid you ? 

Tsy ho any, relahy, tsy ho any e ! We won't go there, friends, we won't 

Nahoana, relahy, nahoana e ? go there ! 

Tsy ho vary, relahy, tsy ho vary e ! Why not then, friends, why not ? 
Ho vary, relahy, ho vary e ! Not for rice, friends, not for rice ! 

Tsy ho hena, relahy, tsy ho hena e ! For rice, friends, for rice ! 
Ho hena, relahy, ho hena e ! Not for meat, friends, not for meat ! 

Tsy ho akoho, relahy, tsy ho akoho e ! For meat, friends, for meat ! 
Ho akoho, relahy, ho akoho e ! Not for fowls, friends, not for fowls ! 

For fowls, friends, for fowls ! 

And so they go on, mentioning other kinds of food, and then 
all the different fruits. When this is finished, the little ones 
go forward to enter, making at the same time a loud noise and 

singing : — 

Varavaran' Andriambolamena, 
Ka intelo miditra toy ny akanjo, 
Mpandrafitra arivo toy ny fantanana. 



222 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Doorway of Golden Prince, 
Entering three times like the dress, 
Carpenters a thousand like the weaving staff.* 

Another " variant " of this song is given by my friend, the 

Rev. J. Richardson, Principal of the L.M.S. Normal School at 

Antananarivo, who has done much for the musical progress 

of the Malagasy by instructing them in the Tonic Sol-fa system, 

and has also written numerous excellent hymns as well as some 

capital school songs. As he also supplies the Sol-fa notation 

of the tune, I venture to extract a paragraph or two from a 

paper of his on " Malagasy Tonon-kira (songs) and Hymno- 

logy" in the Antananarivo Annual, No. II., 1876, p. 24. He 

says, " The only one (song, that is) where an approach to 

rhythm can be found is a little children's play song. The 

children join hands, and the first two take up the strain, 

saying. 

We bid you come, we bid you. 

Then they are answered by the whole body. 
We'll not go there, we'll not go. 
The leaders again sing out. 

And why (not come), and why (not) ? 

The whole body then reply again. 

It's neither rice nor saonjo (an edible arum.=^) 

The leaders cry out, and lift up their arms with hands joined as 
in a country dance, 

It's the Cardinal-bird's house. 

To which the whole troop of children cry out as they pass 

under, 

It's a red house. 



This is the literal translation, but the allusions are obscure. 
Colocasia antiqiwrum. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 



223 



These two last strains are repeated until all have passed under. 
I append music and words in the original : — 



Key F or E. 



D.C. 



:s 
The leaders : Man- 
The rest : Tsy ho 
The leaders : Na- 
The rest : Tsy ho 


s :— .s :m 

a - sa re- 
a - ny re- 
hoa-na re- 
va - ry re- 


r :— .r:d 

la - hy, man- 
la - hy, tsy ho 
la - hy, na- 
la - hy, tsy 


d :— :— 

as' 
any 
hoan' 
saonjo 


s 
e 
e 
e 

e 


s 

The leaders : Tranon-drafody la- 
The rest : Trano me- 


d 

hy 
na 







This little thing is very popular among the youngsters, and 
they spend hours upon hours over it. It is the most correct 
as to rhythm that I can find in the Tbnon-kira, although I have 
a pretty large collection in my possession." 

The two next plays described are called Sakbda, a word 
whose meaning is not at all clear. The first of these is played 
thus : the children sit in two opposite rows ; one side calls out, 
singing to the other, and is answered as follows : — 



Rafara e, Rafara ! 

Ahoana e, ahoana ? 
Nankaiza e ivadin-driako ? 

Lasa e nandranto. 
Rahy maty e, atao ahoana ? 

Fonosin-dravin-tatamo. 
Ravin-tatamo tsy mahafono azy, 
Fa lamba mena no mahafono azy. 



Rafara O, Rafara ! ^ 

What is it then, what is it ? 
Where has your husband gone ? 

He's gone away a-trading. 
Should he be dead, what then } 

Wrap him in leaves of water-lily. 
Water-lily leaves won't wrap him. 
But a red lamba ^ will wrap him. 



Then they change the song and sing : 



Very vakana aho, rizavavy ! 

Vakana inona, rizavavy ? 
Jijikely, rizavavy. 

Hombaina mitady va, rizavavy ? 
Kilalaoko omeko andriako, 
Kilalaoko omeko andriako ! 



I've lost my beads, lasses ! 

What sort of beads, lasses ? 
Little beads, lasses. 

Shall we go with you to seek them, 
lasses ? 
My toys I'll give my lady, 
My toys I'll give my lady ! 



^ A common name for a girl, a contraction of Rafaravavy, the "last female," 
or youngest girl, in a family. 

2 Among the Hovas and some other tribes the dead are always wrapped 
tightly in a number of red cloths or lamba. 



224 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

And when that is finished they all rise and leap about like fi'ogs, 
at the same time slapping their chests ; and those who are tired 
first and stop are considered as beaten. 

The Sakoda No. 2 is much the same kind of game, but with 
different words. 

Another game is called Dian-trctndraka^^ i.e., " Hedgehog- 
steps," and is played by all the party arranging themselves in 
rows, those behind taking hold of those in front, all singing and 
bending down in imitation of the movements of the animal 
which gives its name to the play. 

Another game, resembling our English children's play of 
" Tig " and " Touching wood," is called Kibbkabbka (bbka is the 
Malagasy word for a leper) ; it is played thus : — 

The children all take fast hold of hands and form a large 
ring, and put one of the number to stand in the middle of the 
circle. Then they go round and from side to side, singing. 

Those who touch this one are lepers ; 
Those who touch this one are lepers. 

And those who touch the one in the centre they call bbka (a 
leper) and place in the middle as well, not stopping the game 
until every one has been touched. And when that is finished, 
every one bows down to the ground and says : " Listen, O 
grandfather beneath the earth, for I am no leper, for the lepers 
at Namehana^ only are lepers." Then they spit, saying "Poa."3 
In the second form of this game the children assemble in 
some numbers, and one of them hides a small stone, concealing 
it inside the palm of the hand, putting it opposite one or other 
of his fingers. He then bids his companions choose, and when 
one guesses right the finger where the little stone is, that one 
is called bbka, and they all rush away to save themselves upon 

^ The Trandraka is a small animal allied to the hedgehogs, belonging to the 
family Centetidae, of the order Insectivora. 

2 This is one of the old towns in Imerina, where those afflicted with this 
disease live separate from other people. 

3 It is a common practice with the Malagasy to spit if they smell anything 
offensive. See Folk-Loir Record, vol. ii. p. 37. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 225 

some stone. But when they come down on the ground they 
are chased by the one called bbka^ and if he touches any one 
then his leprosy removes to the one touched. And so they go 
on until all have had their turn. At the end they all spit, and 
say " Poa, for it is not I who am a leper." 

Another game is called Mifampibdby, i.e., " Carrying each 
other on the back," the little ones being carried by the big ones 
round the house, with the following ditty : — 

Carry me on your back, O big one I 

Where shall I carry you, eh ? 
Carry me to follow a clod, oh ? 

What sort of clod is that, eh ? 
The Takatra's ^ nest, I mean, oh ! 

That Takatra whose mate is dead, eh ? 
Take me home, O big one. 

" Star-killing " {Mambno klntana) is the name of another 
children's play, also a favourite one on moonlight nights. A 
number of them sitting together get a little sheep's dung ; and 
then, looking at the stars, they choose one of the brightest, and 
say, " We'll kill (or put out) that one." Then one of them who 
has a good voice sings the following, the rest taking up the 

strain : — 

Rubbed with sheep's dung, 

Tomato seed, gourd seed ; 

Cucumbers full of flattery, 

Flattered by that deceiver, 

Shall he die whose fate is evil ? &c. &c, 

A somewhat more elaborate game is called Petapetaka 
Inenib^ {petaka means " adhering to," " sticking to," and Inenibe 
is " granny "). A number of children being gathered together 
they all choose one about whom they say, " Dead is Granny 
Mrs. Moon-dead-by-day-but-living-by-night" (or "Extinguished- 
by-day-but-lighted-by-night/'i?<3:z;3/<^;2<3:;?2i^/-i;2</w-i^<2;-z///(?;2'^//;2<2:). 
This one they place in the middle and cover her up with a 



^ The Takatra (Scopus timhretta') is a stork which builds a very large and con- 
spicuous nest in the trees, carrying up a great quantity of dry grass and sticks, &c. 

i6 



226 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

quantity of clothes. Then they all pretend to weep, and sing 

out : 

Oh granny O ! oh granny ! 

Desolate, desolate, say I, O ! 

Your grandchildren young locusts passing. 

And so wake up, wake up, say I, O ! 

For miserable are the many children ; 

And so come back, come back, say I, O ! 

For starving are the many little ones ! 

Then they call out for some time, telling the calamity which 
has befallen them. Then they keep quite still for a little while, 
which they call the night for sleeping, and for the old lady to 
appear to them all in their dreams (literally, for " pressing," or 
" squeezing," a word used to express the supposed inspiration 
of people by the Vazimba ^ or by the spirit of their ancestors). 
During this time the one they call the dead old lady pretends 
to inspire (or appear in dreams to) them all, and calls out 
softly : 

Oh little children, O ! 

Oh little children, O ! 

Cross over all of you, 

For on return of this 

Sunday will be here. 

And I shall rise up then. 

After a little pause they all speak, saying : " Granny pressed me 
(or appeared to me) that she'll be alive" (again). Waiting a 
little longer still, they say, " The time's come." Then granny 
gets up, and they pat her with their hands, saying : 

Petapetaka Inenibe, 
Petapetaka Inenibe. 

Then they all rejoice very much, dancing and beating their 

* These are believed to be the inhabitants of the central provinces of Mada- 
gascar, and unacquainted with the use of iron ; and are said to have been driven 
westward by a Hova king, named Andriamanelo. See Chapter II, p. 26, ante. A 
remnant of this tribe is said to be still existing in the western part of Mada- 
gascar. Their tombs are regarded with superstitious dread, and they are sup- 
posed to appear to people in their dreams. They are mostly malevolent spirits, 
according to the popular belief. 



I SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 22/ 

i 

I breasts, and singing and making a loud humming noise, with 

! these words : 

j Kodonga Rambita,^ 

' Kodongo-dahy ; 

Kodonga Rambita, 

Kodongo-dahy ! 

I The annual festival of the Fandroana or Bathing, at the 

f new year, is a time of great rejoicing among the Malagasy, 
or, more strictly speaking, among the Hova in the central 
j provinces. On the day when bullocks are killed, the children 
in Antananarivo assemble in great numbers in Imahamasina, 
,a large plain below the city to the west, and at Isoanierana, 
to the south-west. They all put on clean lambas and dresses, 
wearing earrings and necklaces, and some being carried in 
palanquins. They carry with them fruit of different kinds, and 
small plates, bottles, glasses, and baskets, and go along singing 
until they come to the places just mentioned. Arrived at 
Imahamasina each party places the fruit on the plates, and 
fills the glasses with water ; one division then calls out : 



May we enter, ladies 



The others reply : 



Pray walk in, ladies. 

Certainly, ladies. 
We bring you a little feast. 

May you live long, ladies, in good health ; 
Yes, may God bless us all, ladies ; 

and so on, imitating the formal and polite speeches of their 
elders when paying visits. Then having eaten the fruit they 
sing and dance, during the afternoon singing a number of songs, 
whose titles only are given. The children in the country places 
have a somewhat different custom, for they take meat with them 
to feast upon. 

Before concluding this part of the subject, another children's 

^ Many of the words in these games are really untranslatable, as they have 
no equivalent in English, 



228 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

amusement may be mentioned, although it is by no means 
confined to children, viz., songs and ditties intended to help in 
learning to count. Mr. Richardson, in the second number of 
the Publications of the Malagasy Folk-lore Society, gives ten 
specimens of these productions, one of them being a song of 
ten verses of four lines each, but most having only ten lines, 
and some only four. In some of these ditties there is a punning 
on the form of the different words for the numbers up to ten, 
some word of similar sound being brought in to help the 
memory. This is much the same as if we, to help to remember 
the number " one," brought in the word " won " in connection 
with it ; or with " four," " before " ; or with " eight," " abate," 
Sz:c. Here is a specimen verse or two : — 

I. E, Andrian/sa/ e Andrian/sa / i. O Mister One ! O Mister One ! 

Aza manfsa ny efa tsy nety e ! Do not count (lit., ** do one ") the un- 

E, homba anao aho re ! willing, O ! 

E, ry izy aroy e ! O, I'll go along with you ! 

O, he's yonder there ! 

6, E, Andnanenina ! e Andriang;?/;?^ / 6. O Mister Six ! O Mister Six ! 
Aza mznenina ^ alohan'ny, olona e ! Do not regret before people O ! 

E, homba anao aho re ! O, I'll go along with you ! 

E, ry izy aroy e ! O, he's yonder there ! 

8. E, Andria-mbalo, e Andriam6a/o / 8. O Mister Eight ! O Mister Eight ! 
MivaJo ^ fanahy tsy haditra e ! Begging pardon, will not be obstinate, 

E, homba anao aho re ! O ! 

E, ry izy aroy e ! O, I'll go along with you ! 



O, he's yonder there 



In the following the numbers are simply applied to different 
objects : — 

Isa ny amontana, One the amoniana (tree). 

Roa ny aviavy, Two the aviavy (trees). 

Telo fangady, Three spades. 

Efa-drofia, Four rofia (palms). 

Dimy emboka, Five gums. 



' Playing on the similarity of sound between the words enina, six, and 
manenina, to regret. The words are shown by italics. 

2 A play on the words balo = valo, eight, and mivalo, to abjectly beg pardon ; 
on account of these similarities in sound to unpleasant ideas, both six and eight 
are considered unlucky numbers. See Folk-Lorc Record, vol. ii. p. 38. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 229 



Eni-mangamanga, 


Six blues. 


Fito paraky, 


Seven tobacco (plants). 


Valo tanantanana, 


Eight castor-oil (shrubs). 


Sivy rongony, 


Nine hemp (plants). 


Folo fanolehana ! 


Ten twistings ! 



In another, words are chosen in each of the ten lines that con- 
tain the words for the numbers from one to ten ; they are 
mostly names of plants, grasses, &c. : — 

Hisatra (the peel of rushes). 

Tsindroadroatr3, (a grass, Sporoholus indicus, R.Br,). 

Tdorirana (Cypcnis sp.). 

£/anina (?) 

Di11g3.ding3.na. (a shrub, Psiadia dodoncu cvfolia, St.) 

Voninc7/ma (a herb, Epallagc dentata, D,C.) 

F/fatra (a bird, sp. of Warbler, Pratincola sybilla, L.) 

Kim6fl/om6a/ontanclroka (the core of a horn). 

S/i'ana (Eng. a sieve). 

Tsipolopolotra ! (the seeds of Bidens sp.). 

Some seem merely nonsense rhymes ; and others carry on the 
last syllables of one line to the first of the next : — 



Aingisa, 


Voa manisa. 


Aingoa, 


Voa manapily, 


Talonga, 


Pily maka, 


'Ndrafanga, 


Maka ity, 


Diminga, 


Ity koa. 


Aiminga, 


Tabarasily, 


Tsitonga, 


Sily kely, 


Valonga, 


Tangorom-bola, 


Tsivaza, 


Hazon-dandy, 


Aigo! 


Tsy folo va izao ? (Isn't that ten 


Roa an-jaza ; 


Two for the child ; 


Telo am-behivavy ; 


Three for the woman ; 


Efatra an-dehilahy ; 


Four for the man ; 


Raika tsy tia be ! 


One's not liked much ! 



Section III. : Marvellous Creatures, or Bogey 
Stories. — The Malagasy, like most uncivilised peoples, are 
fond of the marvellous, and many are the wonderful stories 
told of strange creatures and unearthly appearances some of 
them have seen. Several of the extraordinary creatures are 



230 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

described in Mr. Dahle's book, and I shall therefore give a 
translation of what is said about each of them, only omitting a 
few sentences which are merely wordy repetitions. In a note 
to the heading of Sampon-javatra Sasany Mdhagdgay or 
" Sundry Marvellous Stories," it is said that these stories come 
from the Betsileo district, the southern-central province of 
Madagascar. It will be seen that some of the strange creatures 
here described are not animals, but have some connection with 
humanity : the kindly being a grisly reappearance of men after 
death ; the angaldpona being a kind of water-sprite ; while the 
siona is a diminutive elf of pilfering propensities. 

I. The Songbmby.^ — The Songbmby, they say, is an animal 
as big as an ox and fleet of foot, and is said to eat men. In 
former times (not very long ago) the people in the south thought 
the horse ^ was a Songbmby come from abroad. The way it is 
caught, they say, is thus : A child is fastened at the entrance of 
the Songbmby s den, so that it cries, and a net is spread at the 
entrance, whereupon the creature comes and is snared. Near 
our town (says the author of this account) is a hole in the rock 
where the people think there is a Songbmby. When it sees any 
one it attacks them fiercely, but the female, it is said, does not 
fight much, but only encourages the male, so that they always 
go together. It once happened, they say, that a certain man 
was going about by night, and met with the Songbmby. He 
fought most bravely all night, and, being a very strong man, 
was not hurt. Another story about it is that a naughty child 
was put by its father and mother outside the house, and would 
have been devoured by one of these creatures had it not been 
quickly rescued. And another day, the tale goes, a child was 
punished in the same way, the parents calling out, " Here's your 
share, Mr. Songomby ! " Then the beast really came up, where- 

'^ The two words apparently composing this name mean respectively as follows : 
songa, "having the upper lip turned upward, uncovered," and oinby, an ox. Son- 
gomby means, figuratively, " lion-hearted." 

= The horse is of quite modern introduction into Madagascar ; it is called, by a 
corruption of the French word, sbavaJy =■ cheval. 



I SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 23 1 

Upon the child cried out, " Oh, here he really is ! " But the 
parents replied, " Well, let him eat you," thinking it was only 
the child's deception. After a little while they opened the door, 
and lo ! the child had gone. So the parents and the villagers 
made a great stir, arid took torches to seek it, and lo ! there was 
child's blood dropped on the road all the way to the beast's den. 

jj Many other stories are also told, which the people think confirm 

I the truth of the existence of this creature. 

2. The Fanany with Seven Heads. — This creature, they say, 
is something which comes from man, for there are certain people 
whose intestines turn into Fanany ; but sometimes it does not 
come from their intestines, but from their corpse as a whole 
when it becomes corrupt. On this account it is said to be a 
frequent custom in certain districts in the south for the people 
to take the intestines of their dead relatives and place them in 
a river or small pool, so that they may turn into a Fanany. But 
the people who change into this creature, they say, are of royal 

I (or noble) descent. So that because of this belief they kill oxen 
when they see a large creature they believe to be a Fanany, and 
give it blood and rum to drink and ox-hump to eat. When it 
first appears they say it ascends into the town where it was 
produced, that is, where the person from whom it came formerly 
lived, and there the people of the place ask it, " Art thou Such- 
an-one ? " And if the name they mention was really its own, it 
nods its head ; but if it does not correspond, it shakes its head. 
They then go on mentioning the names of all the famous 
deceased nobles in the surrounding district until the creature 
acknowledges one of them as its own ; and as soon as this is 
arrived at, they kill oxen as just described. 

The animal is similar in appearance to the water-snake and 

I the Manditra (another snake). It is a fierce creature, and has 

I seven heads ; and when it has grown full size, each of its heads 
has a horn growing on it. There was a certain man named 
Ralako, who conversed with me (says the narrator of this), and 
this he says he saw : The Fanany fought with a bull during the 



232 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

night, and each fought hard. And during the conflict the Fandny 
did not bite with its mouth, but fought with its seven horns ; 
each of these was successively broken, until at last it was killed 
by the bull. Just before death it drew itself up and swelled out 
to the size of a mountain, so that all the villages in the neigh- 
bourhood could not be inhabited on account of the effluvium. It 
was a man from Imamo (the western part of Imerina, the central 
province) who told me this, and it was there, he said, that it 
happened. 

There is also another story about the Fanany as follows: 
When it becomes big, they say it encircles a mountain (Itritriva^ 
is said to be one of such mountains) ; and when its head and tail 
meet and there is anything to spare besides what goes round the 
mountain, the creature eats it ; and when that is done, some say 
that it sticks its tail into the earth and mounts up to the sky ; 
but others say that it goes into some great piece of water 
sufficient for its size. It remained in the lake of Itritriva, they 
say, but when it became too big for the lake it removed to 
Andraikiba (a lake west of Antsirabe, in the same neighbour- 
hood), and there it remains up to the present time. 

I have seen the animal called the Fandny (says the native 
narrator), but I have not seen either its seven heads or any 
appearance of them ; and on asking the people the reason of 
this, they replied that it was yet too young. The size of the 
creature they pointed out to me was about that of an adult 
mdnditra, or somewhat less. 

3. The Tbkantbngotra or Thkandla ("Single-foot" or "Single- 
step"). — This is a large white animal (but smaller than the 
Songbmby), and, as its name implies, its feet are not cloven, and 
it does not mean that the animal has a single leg in front and a 
single one behind, as several European writers have described. 
It is an exceedingly swift animal, so that no other creature has 
a chance of escaping it. It eats men, and goes about at night 

^ This is the name of an extinct volcano in the Northern Betsileo country. The 
crater is occupied by a lake of profound depth. See Chap. V, 



I 



r*. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES* 233 

like the Songbmby. There are people who say they have seen 
it, but few compared with those who testify to the existence of 
the Songbmby^ 

4. The Kinbly. — This creature is said to be human. When 
any one dies who turns into a Kinbly, he is buried by the rela- 
tives, until the intestines and the skin of the stomach all decay ; 
and when that is the case, they open up the tomb so that the 
Kinbly may go out ; so it goes out. Their eyes are red and 
their nails long, but they are no longer like the living ; yet the 
whole body, except the portions already mentioned, is like that 
of a human being. They are said to be constantly thieving ; 
and when any one leaves out cooked rice or other food, they 
take it. Sometimes they also steal rice in the husk, but it is 
said they can hardly carry any burden ; and a story is told of 
some one who saw two Kinbly stealing rice, and hid himself to 
observe their procedure. They filled with rice some vessel they 
carried, and the male one carried the burden, putting \t on his 
shoulder ; but as soon as it rested there, he cried, " Fm killed ; 
O my shoulder ! " Then said the female, " There's no carrying 
it ; where is it ? I'll carry it." Then she carried it on her head 
(that is their custom when both husband and wife die) ; but as 
soon as it was placed there, she called out, " I'm killed ; O my 
head ! " Another story is told of a person suddenly meeting a 
Kinbly one day, and, seeing the redness of its eyes and the 
length of its nails, said, " How is it your eyes are so red ? " It 
replied, " God passed by them." Then he asked again, " How is 
it your nails are so long?" It replied, "That I may tear out 
your liver" (or inside), upon which it tore the man. In the 
Betsileo province people say that there are Kinbly up to the 
present time, and this not long ago, but quite recently. Among 
the inhabitants there are many who believe in the reappearance 
of these bowelless people ; but they think it is a cause of lamen- 
tation, both to the person himself and also to his relations, to 
become a Kinbly, 

^ It is commonly said that those who even see the TbkancVia are immediately- 
struck dead or senseless. 



234 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

5. The Dona or Plly.^ — This animal is one of the fiercest of 
creatures ; it is big and long, and its skin is striped, so that 
makers of Ictmba take it as a pattern for striped cloths. During 
the day it is quite gentle, so that even an infant can play with it 
and take no harm, but when night comes on there is hardly any 
other creature so fierce. They say it bellows like a bull. If any 
animal or man meets it at night, it encircles him at the loins 
and compresses him so tightly that in a very short time the 
object attacked is dead. It has the power of making its body 
big or little, something like indiarubber. It is very crafty, so 
that when it meets with a serpent {Menardna\ which is a creep- 
ing creature like itself, it appears to be afraid, and makes its 
body small. Then comes the serpent and twines round it, and 
then raises its tail to strike the Dona (for the tail of the Menarana 
is barbed, they say, like a spear, and it kills its victims by this 
means). Then the Dona swells its body suddenly, so that the 
Menarcina is broken, as if cut with a knife. Such is its power 
that it is said to be able to force its way out of its hole, although 
opposed by the strength of the strongest man stopping it up 
with a cloth stuffed in at the entrance. Whistling, it appears, 
makes the Dona angry, although in the daytime it is usually 
tame. 

6. The Ldlomena or Ldlimena. — This animal is like the ox, 
but lives in the water. It has two horns, and they are very red, 
and it is said to be amongst the strongest of the animals which 
live in the water. It is difficult to say exactly what its appear- 
ance and qualities are, for there is much of the fabulous mixed 



* Vily is the name of a serpent. This account is, I think, hardly correctly put 
under the heading of superstitious beliefs ; except in two or three points, it is 
rather a piece of natural history observation, for there is no question at all about 
the existence in the western and warmer parts of Madagascar of one or more 
species of boa. These examples of the widely-spread tropical pythons belong to 
a peculiar genus, Sanzinia ; hanging from the branches of the trees, these ser- 
pents are said to pounce suddenly on their victims, and, enveloping them in their 
folds, speedily squeeze them to death. They are even said to kill oxen, and 
occasionally man, but doubtless a good deal of superstition is mixed up with the 
native accounts of them. 



SONGS, POETRY, AND MYTHICAL CREATURES. 235 

Up with the accounts of it. It seems possible that this word 
retains traditions of the Madagascar species of Hippopotamus, 
an animal whose sub-fossil bones have been found in the alluvial 
deposits of Antsirabe in the Vakinankaratra district, south of 
Imerina, as well as on the south-west coast, and which possibly 
was still living when the island was first peopled. These remains 
are said to be called those of the Lctloinena by the people there. 

7. The Angaldpona. — This creature is among things which 
are related to man, they say, although it is not so large as a 
human being. Its abode is said to be in the water, but yet it is 
not wetted by it, for they say there is a cave within the water 
into which water does not enter, and there the Angalapona lives. 
The door by which it goes out and in turns in the water, and so 
is the road by which it passes to and fro, but yet it is not at all 
wet, although traversing water in this way. As regards its size^ 
it is a little larger than a young child. Its hair is very long, so 
that when it stands upright it almost reaches the ground. It is 
considered by the people to be the director of divination and 
(fortunate) day foretelling, &c., so that the diviners call upon it 
when working the oracle with the words, " Arise, for thou hast 
come from Long-hair," &c. 

There are two persons still living who say that they have 
certainly seen it ; their names are Renisoarahanoro and Raini- 
tsimanahy. The former (a woman) chanced to be in the unin- 
habited country, and was called by a name, a name which is 
pleasing to ^<^ Angalapona. (For names such as Rasoa^ and 
the like are pleasing to this creature, so that it fetches such 
as bear these names.) So the Angalapona came and took her 
towards its den, passing through the water, but neither it nor 
the woman was wetted at all. But when they came to the cave, 
she would not go forward, but remained at the side of the door ; 
neither would she eat food, disliking the things eaten by the 

^ This is a very common female name among the Malagasy, both in this short 
form and also in combination with other words. Ra is the personal prefix, sba 
is " good, pleasant agreeable." 



236 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Angalapona, such as raw eels and cray-fish and the like. And 
so because she would remain always at the doorway, her clothes 
became covered with water-plants. So the Angalapona and his 
wife considered together what they should do with her, and they 
agreed to send her back home. This they did after giving her 
(power to work) divination. And now she is applied to by the 
people for that purpose. 

And Rainitsimanahy's account is that he was in the unin- 
habited region, and at the time when every one is fast asleep an 
Angalapona came and desired him to be its husband. But as he 
would not agree to this, it followed him about perpetually. 

Many of the people say that they have seen this creature, 
especially those who are afflicted with a disease called ji/a. 

8. T/ie Siona, — The creature so called has also something 
human about it, but it is different both from the Kinoly and the 
Angalapona. It is said to live away from men, and when any 
one goes through the uninhabited country and does not take 
care of his rice, or chopper, these are taken by the Siona^ they 
say, and conveyed to its abode. When the woodmen go to 
sleep, and leave a fire still burning (for their custom is to place 
a big log on the hearth before sleeping, so that they may be 
kept warm), then this creature comes and warms itself. Its food 
is a root called Avoko ( Vigna angivensis, Baker) and other sub- 
stances. All over its body it is covered with lichen growing 
upon it, so that when it lies down on a rock it is not distinguish- 
able, although seen close to the place. When any people are ill 
and out of their mind, their friends are afraid lest they shall 
become a Siona ; and very lately it was reported that some 
people narrowly escaped this fate, from which they were only 
saved by the strenuous efforts of their friends. 



i 



CHAPTER XIL 
MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 

Bonia — Crocodile and Dog — Three Sisters and Itrimobe — The Members of the 
Body— The Little Bird— Rapeto— The Lost Son of God— The Five Fingers 
— The Earth and the Skies — The Birds choosing a King — The Lizards — 
Hawk and Hen — Vazimba — Chameleon and Lizard — Serpent and Frog — 
The Rice and Sugar-cane — Two Rogues — ^W^ild Hog and Rat. 

WE now come to the last division of the subjects treated 
of in our text-book (Rev. L. Dahle's Malagasy Folk-lore),. 
that of Folk-tales and Fables — or, as they are called in ^[.2X2.- 
ga.sy, Angdno or Arlra ; i.e., fables, tales, and legends. These 
occupy nearly two-thirds of Mr. Dahle's book (294 pp.), and 
include eighty-four separate pieces, some occupying only a 
single paragraph, while others extend to a considerable length. 
The longest story, that of Bonia, occupies forty-seven pages ; 
another, twenty- three pages ; another, thirteen pages, and so on,, 
down to a page or two. About twenty of these stories are 
fables chiefly referring to animals ; several relate passages in 
the adventures of two Malagasy rogues, whose fuller history 
had previously been published in a separate form ; some partake 
of the character of nursery rhymes ; some are mythic, professing 
to explain the origin of man and nature ; and several are giant 
stories, in which a monster called Itrimobe is a prominent actor. 
In various numbers of the Folk-lore Journal for 1883 and 
1884 I gave translations of thirty-eight of these compositions, 
and those who are interested in such studies will there find a 
good variety of them. Here, however, we can only include 

237 



238 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

a Specimen or two of each class of folk-tale, but probably these 
will indicate sufficiently clearly the character of the whole. 

The most favourite, as well as the longest Malagasy folk-tale, 
is that of Bonia^ or, as the name is given in some variants of the 
story, Andrian-ari-saina-bonia-maso-bonia-man6ro(!) Of this 
tale Mr. Richardson says : " It could, with a little * padding ' 
and the additions contained in our various renderings, be 
lengthened out into a good-sized three-volume novel, so many 
are the incidents and dramatis personce ; while the most concise 
form of it (18 pp.) is that published in the first number of the 
[Malagasy] Folk-lore Society's Publications^ and obtained by 
the writer [Mr. R.] from a teacher in the London Missionary 
Society's Normal School. Its length and wealth of incident 
certainly establish its claim for a first place in all notices of the 
Malagasy tales." Several of the following stories are translated 
from Folk-lore and Folk-tales of Madagascar, 

The Crocodile and the Dog, 

Once upon a time a crocodile and a dog chanced to meet 
suddenly on the road. Then said the crocodile, " Where are 
you from, my younger brother ? " " Just hereabouts, my elder 
brother," said the dog. Upon that the dog also asked the 
crocodile, "Where are you from, elder brother?" "I've just 
come from such a place, younger brother," said he. 

And said the dog, " What do you think about my proposal ? 
do you agree or not ? " " What proposal is that, younger 
brother ? " " Let us strike up a friendship together," said the 
dog. " Yes, all right," said the crocodile ; " if a little fellow like 
you knows what is right, much more a senior like myself. Come 
along then, young friend." "Agreed," said the dog. So the 
two struck up a firm friendship, and went on talking thus : 
" Whoever proves false," said the crocodile, " shall be scouted." 
" Agreed," said the dog. 

Some little time afterwards the crocodile said, " Come, let 
me give you a meal, young friend." So he supplied the dog 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 239 

with food, and when he had eaten his fill, the dog said, " Come, 
carry me over, old friend." So the crocodile carried him ; but 
half-way across, he stopped and sank down into the water. 
Upon that the dog struggled a little, but presently got across ; 
and as soon as he landed the crocodile emerged from the 
water. So the dog said, " You've broken the agreement, old 
fellow." " Why, wasn't I there below you all the same ? For 
I want you to be able to swim." Nevertheless if the dog had 
not been able to swim, he would have been drowned. 

Then said the dog in his turn, " Come now, old fellow, do you 
go yonder with me to-morrow." " But where is the place of 
meeting, young friend ? " " Yonder, at such-a-place," said the 
dog. " Agreed," replied the crocodile. On the morrow accord- 
ingly the dog took him some distance towards ground covered 
with the trailing tendrils of gourds. But it was to pay him out 
for what he had done. So the dog said, " I will give you a 
signal, old fellow ; when I bark, then run off, for people are 
coming." The crocodile, be it said, had brought his wife and 
family with him. And when they all arrived the dog set food 
before them, but before the meal was half-way through he began 
to bark. So off they all ran, but some of the young ones were 
entangled in the trailing tendrils of the gourds and killed. 

So when they got to the water, the crocodile said, " What 
kind of a dog are you ? What's the meaning of this, fellow ? " 
" There's no retribution, but the past returns," ^ said the dog. 
The crocodile rejoined, " If my descendants and heirs do not 
destroy dogs from henceforth, then let me have no heirs to 
inherit ! " And this was the origin of the enmity between dogs 
and crocodiles. 

The Three Sisters and Itrimobe, 

There was once a certain couple who were very rich, and they 
had three children, all daughters. And of these children of 
theirs, the youngest, Ifaravavy (" last female "), was the prettiest 

^ A native proverb : " ^y tody fsy misy, fa ny atao miverina" 



240 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

One day Ifara had a dream, and told it to her sisters ; said 
she, " I have had a dream, lasses, and I dreamt that the son of 
the sun came from heaven to take a wife from among us, and it 
was I whom he took, for you two he left behind." 

Then the two sisters were very angry about it, and said, "It 
is true enough that she is prettier than we are, and if a prince or 
noble should seek a wife, he would choose her, and not care for 
us ; so let us consider what to do. Come, let us take her out 
to play, and find out from people which of us they consider the 
best looking," So they called Ifara, and said, " Come, Ifara, let 
us go and play." 

So they went away all dressed in their best, and soon met 
an old woman. " Granny," said they, " which of us three sisters 
is the prettiest ? " " Ramatoa (the eldest) is good looking, Raivo 
(the middle one) is good looking, but Ifara is better looking than 
either." " Oh, dear," said they, " there's no doubt Ifara is prettier 
than we are." So they took off Ifara's lamba (the outer native 
dress, a large oblong piece of cloth). 

Presently they met an old man. " Grandfather," they said, 
" who is the prettiest of us three sisters ? " " Ramatoa is good 
looking, Raivo is good looking, but Ifara is better looking than 
either." " Dear me ! although deprived of her Idmba, she is still 
prettier than we are." So they stripped her of her underclothing. 

Then they met with Itrimobe. (This was an immense 
monster, half human and half beast, a man-eating creature, and 
with a frightfully sharp tail.) " Oh, dear, if here isn't Itrimobe ! 
"Who is the prettiest of us three sisters? " But with a snarl he 
answered just as the old woman and old man had answered. 

So the sisters were beside themselves with anger because 
If^ra was prettier than they were, and they said, " If we were to 
kill Ifara, perhaps father and mother would hear of it and kill 
us, so let us go and get some of Itrimobe's vegetables, so that 
he may eat her." So the sisters said to her, " Come, Ifara, let 
us see who can find the nicest vegetables." " Come along then," 
she said, " let us take some of those yonder " (meaning those of 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 24 1 

Itrimobe). "Shall we get the ripe or the young ones?" said 
Ifara. " Get those just sprouting," said they. Then they went 
to get them, but the two sisters took the full-grown ones. So 
when the three showed theirs to each other Ifara's were the 
worst. " Oh, dear ! " cried she, " why yours are the full-grown, 
you've cheated me." " It's yourself, girl, who would take the 
unripe," said the two ; " go along and fetch some full-grown 
ones." 

So Ifara went off to get them ; but while she was gathering 
them she was caught by Itrimobe. " I've got you, my lass," 
said he, "for you are taking my vegetables; I'll eat you, my 
lass." Then Ifara cried, " I am sorry, Itrimobe, but take me for 
your wife." " Come along, then," said he (but it was that he 
might take her home to be fattened, and after that eat her). 

The sisters were exceedingly glad at this, and went away to 
tell their father and mother, saying, " Ifara stole Itrimobe's vege- 
tables, so he has eaten her." Then the old people wept profusely 
for sorrow. So Itrimobe fed up Ifara at his house, and would 
not let her go out of doors, but covered her with mats, while he 
went into the country hunting things to fatten her, so that Ifara 
became very fat, and the time approached for Itrimobe to devour 
her. 

But one day, when Itrimobe happened to have gone abroad 
hunting, a little mouse wearing plantain fibre cloth jumped by 
Ifara's side and said, " Give me a little white rice, Ifara, and I'll 
give you advice." " What advice can you give me ? " said Ifara. 
" Well, then, let Itrimobe devour you to-morrow." " But what 
is the advice you can give me ? " said Ifara, " for I'll give you 
the rice." So she gave some white rice to the little mouse 
clothed in cloth of plantain fibre ; and it said to her, " Be off 
with you, and take an egg, a broom, a small cane, and a smooth 
round stone, and escape southwards." 

So Kara took the things and set off; but she put a plantain- 
tree stem instead of herself in her bed, and locked up the house. 
Presently Itrimobe came home from the fields bringing, with 

17 



242 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

him a spear for killing Ifara, and a cooking-pot ; so he knocked 
at the door, but no one opened. Said he, " Dear me, Ifara's got 
so fat she can't move." So he broke open the door, and coming 
up to the bed thrust his spear through the mat, so that it stuck 
fast in the plantain-tree stem. Then he said, " Oh dear, Ifara's 
so fat the spear sticks fast into her." So he stuck it in again 
and licked the spear. " Why," said he, " Ifara must be fat, for 
her blood has no taste ! " But when he had opened the mat to 
take her for cooking, lo and behold, the plantain-tree stem ! 
" Oho ! the worthless wench has run off ! " said he. 

Then he snuffed the air to the east, but there was nothing 
there ; he snuffed to the north, nothing there ; he snuffed to the 
west, nothing there; he snuffed to the south, "Ah, there she is ! " 
Off he sets, runs after her with all speed, and at last overtakes 
her ; " I've got you, Ifara ! " So Ifara threw down her broom, 
saying, " By my sacred father and mother, let this become a 
dense thicket which Itrimobe cannot pass through." Then a 
very dense thicket grew up. But Itrimobe took his tail and cut 
away perseveringly at the thicket until it was all cleared off. 
" I've got you now, Ifara ! " 

Then Ifara put down her egg, saying, " By my sacred father 
and mother, let this egg become a great pool of water." Then 
a great pool appeared. But Itrimobe began to drink up the 
water and kept pouring it into the river. At last the water was 
dried up. " I've got you now, Ifara ! " 

Then Ifara put down her small cane, saying, " By my sacred 
father and mother, let this cane become a dense forest." Then 
a dense impassable forest grew up. But Itrimob6 with his tail 
hewed down the forest, and kept at work until the whole was 
felled. " I've got you now, Ifara ! " 

Then Ifara put down her smooth round stone, and said, " By 
my sacred father and mother, let this become an inaccessible 
precipice which Itrimobe cannot climb. So it became an 
immense precipice. Then Itrimobe cut away with his tail 
incessantly, but at last his tail became so blunt he could do 




MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 243 

nothing more. He attempted to climb, but was unable. Then 
he called out, " Pull me up, Ifara, for I won't harm you." But 
Ifara replied, " I won't take hold of you until you have stuck 
your spear in the ground." So Itrimobe stuck the spear in the 
ground, and Ifara threw him a rope, which he laid hold of But 
when he was nearly up he said, " I've got you, Ifara, my lass ! " 
Then Ifara let him fall, and he was impaled on his spear and 
was killed.^ 

So Ifara was there upon the rock ; and she wept and was 
sad at heart for her father and mother. Then came a crow, 
and when Ifara saw it she sang to it as follows : 

" O yonder crow, O yonder crow ! 
Take me to father's well, 
And I will smooth thy tail ! " 

" And you say I eat unripe earth-nuts, and am I going to 
carry you there ? Stay where you are," said the crow. 
Then came a hawk, to whom she said : 

" O yonder hawk, O yonder hawk ! 
Take me to father's well, 
And I will smoota thy tail ! " 

" And you say I am the eater of dead rats, and am I going 
to carry you there ? " 

After that a " Reo " bird {Leptosomus discolor) came, repeat- 
ing its cry, " Reo, reo, reo," which, when Ifara saw, she called to 
thus : 

" O yonder Rco^ O yonder Reo ! 
Take me to father's well, 
And I will smooth thy tail ! " 

" Reo, reo, reo," said the bird, " come, let me carry you, my 
lass, for I feel for the sorrowful." So the bird took her away 
and placed her on a tree just above the well of her father and 
mother. 

Soon there came a little slave girl of theirs to draw water ; 

^ Malagasy spears have a small blade at the foot, by which they are stuck in 
the ground when encamping, &c., so that the large blade stands upright. 



244 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

she washed her face, and seeing a reflection in the water, cried 
out, " My word ! to have a pretty face Hke mine, and yet carry 
a waterpot on my head ! " But it was the reflection of Ifara's 
face she saw in the water and took it for her own. So she broke 
the waterpot in pieces. Then Ifara called out from the tree, 
" Father and mother are at expense to buy waterpots, and you 
break them ! " So the slave-girl, whose name was Itretrikandevo, 
looked all about her and said, " Wherever was that person 
speaking ? " So she went off home. 

On the morrow she came again to fetch water, and washing 
her face again, saw a reflection in the water, and breaking the 
waterpot said, " A handsome face like mine, indeed, and have 
to carry water on my head ! " But it was Ifara's face she saw 
there. And again Ifara spoke from up the tree, " Father spends 
money buying, and you break." And again Itretrikandevo 
looked about her, saying, " Whoever was that speaking ? " 

So she ran off to the village, saying to her master and 
mistress, "There was somebody speaking yonder at the well, 
but I could not see who it was, yet the voice was like Ifara's ! " 
So the pair went off to see, and when they got there Ifara came 
down, and all three wept for joy. Then Ifara told them how 
her sisters had deceived her so that she might be seized by 
Itrimobe. So they disowned the two daughters and kept Ifara 
as their child. 

The Dispute for Seniority among the Members of the Body. 

Once upon a time, it is said, the Ear, the Eye, the Mouth, 
the Hand, the Foot, and the Belly disputed together about 
seniority, and in this manner went the dispute : — 

Said the Ear, " I am the eldest of all, because it is I who 
hear all things whatsoever." 

And when the Eye heard that, he answered, "It isn't you 
who are the eldest, but I ; for although you. Ear, may even hear, 
if it wasn't for me, the Eye, seeing, then you would see nothing 
of the way you ought to tread." 



1 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 245 

And when the Mouth heard that, he was angry, and said, 
" You fellows here are talking nonsense, and disputing as to who 
shall be the head ; while neither of you is the eldest, but it is 
I myself; for although you. Ear, may hear, and you, Eye, even 
may see, if it was not for me. Mouth, speaking, you would 
remain silent as stone or wood." 

And when the Hand heard that he was startled, and said, 
" Why, you ought to be ashamed of yourselves for talking such 
rubbish, and each of you saying, ' It is I who am eldest' Why 
don't you think a little before you speak ? For although you 
all may be here, ear and eye and mouth, if it wasn't for me, the 
hand, which takes hold and works, what could you all accom- 
plish? So let every one be still, for there is no one of you 
eldest, for I, the hand, alone am the eldest." 

And when the Foot heard that, he burst out laughing, and 
said, " What a set of fools ! just look at the shadow first before 
you peer into the glass. People like you, indeed, quarrelling 
about seniority ! For what are you but maize hung up, so that 
although you. Eye, may see, and although you. Mouth, may 
speak, and although you. Hand, may take hold, if it wasn't for 
me, the foot, to go and carry you, what would you be better 
than the bottom of the basket, to sit still without any other 
business than to be friends with the ashes ? ^ Don't dispute any 
more about seniority, for none of you is worthy to be senior. 
For it is I, the foot, only who am senior." 

And the Belly, when he heard all that, said, " How is it 
these fellows have a mouth that is never tired, and lips above 
and below, and are not torn to pieces like a rag? 

" This Ear, forsooth, making himself to be senior ! The dog 
has ears just as much as you, and hears the abuse and evil words 
spoken by others ; but its belly does not know rest, and is happy 
to bear the abuse of others. 

" And you. Eye, making yourself to be senior ! Every 
living thing sees the darkness and the light ; but the belly 
^ Alluding to the ashes carried in baskets as manure for the rice-fields. 



246 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

does not observe, for the eye looks upon the good and the 
evil. 

" And you, Mouth, also, making yourself to be senior ! The 
pig, too, has a mouth the same as you, but its belly is happy in 
doing evil, and devours that which it had vomited. 

" And you. Hand, also making yourself to be senior ! The 
crab has hands just as much as you, but its belly has no thought, 
so its hands can do nothing of themselves, either separately or 
altogether. 

" And as for you. Foot, making yourself to be senior ! You 
see that the ox has feet just as much as you, but its belly is 
foolish, and so it is made a treader of rice-fields and a breaker 
up of clods.^ So this is what I declare to you : Don't dispute 
any more about seniority, for it is I alone who am the eldest, 
because it is I, the belly, who am thinker and observer, and 
receptacle for the food which is to strengthen you all." 

So they all humbled themselves to be juniors, and the belly 
only was agreed to as the eldest ; and they gathered together 
there all the emotions expressed in such phrases as " My heart 
is troubled," " My liver is troubled," " My bowels are troubled," 
" My belly is troubled," &c. 

The meaning of this amusing fable will be clearer if it is 
remembered that the Malagasy use the word for belly {kibd) in 
a very wide sense, as including heart, bgwels, liver, womb, 
stomach, &c. ; and that in these organs they (like Orientals 
generally) place the seat of the emotions and feelings, and the 
intelligence also. The similarity of the main idea of the fable 
to that of ^sop's " The Belly and the Members," is obvious, an 
idea which is probably found in almost every nation, as is also 
seen in its very full use as an illustration by St. Paul in i Cor. 
xii. 12-25. It will be noticed that seniority is equivalent among 
the Malagasy to headship or lordship. 

^ Oxen are driven about on the soft mud of the rice-fields, over which water 
has been allowed to flow, after they have been dug up by the spade. 



I 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 247 

The Little Bird and he who ate it. 

Once upon a time there was a young bird of the species 
called antsaly^ and it was stoned by a certain man ; so the bird 
cried out thus : — 

" Throws stones indeed, does this man, O, 
Throws stones at the little antsaly, O ! 
Throws stones O ! " 

So the man still went on throwing ; and, the bird's foot being 
struck, it fell to the ground and was caught by the man. And 
when he had got it, it began to sing thus : 

" Obtained indeed has this man, O, 
Obtained the little antsaly, O I 
Obtained O ! " 

Then the man took the bird home. And when he had come to 
his wife the bird spake again thus : 

" Obtained indeed has this man, O, 
Obtained the little antsaly, O ! 
Obtained O ! " 

So the man's wife was astonished, and said, " Dear me, why this 
bird speaks ! Whatever you may think, it's an unlucky busi- 
ness ; for I never in all my life saw such a thing as this." But 
the man said, " If you won't eat it, I'll eat it by myself" So he 
killed the bird and cut it up, and said to his child, " Take hold, 
child, for it bothers me." But the mother interposed, saying, 
"If you're my child don't you take hold of it, for it's unlucky." 
So the child would not take hold, for it was afraid of its mother. 
Then the bird called out again : — 

" Will cut up indeed, will this man, 
Will cut up the little antsaly ! 
Will cut up ! '• 

Then the wife said again, " Dear me, are you really bold enough 
to do that ? A bird speaking ! and you dare cook it ? " But 



248 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the man did not answer and went on by himself, and presently 
really began to cut. So the bird called out again : 

" Is cooking indeed, is this man, 
Is cooking the httle antsaly I 
Is cooking ! " 

And after a little while the bird was cooked and the man ate ; 
but the people in the house would not eat, for they were afraid. 
Then the bird called out again : 

" Is eating indeed, is this man, 
Is eating the little antsaly ! 
Is eating ! " 

And after the man had eaten he sat down north of the hearth,^ 
and his wife sat south of it, and the children east of it. And 
after a little time the man's stomach began to swell, and the 
bird also called out again in his stomach thus : 

*' Is full indeed, is this man, 
Is full of the little antsaly ! 
Is full ! " 

Then his wife spoke again to him, " Now you see what you've 
got ! for you were admonished and wouldn't take warning." 
But the man could not answer, but wept, and his tears flowed 
apace. And then, wonderful to relate, the bird's parents out in 
the field called out : 

" Gone where is the little antsaly ? 
Gone where is the little antsaly f 
Gone where ? " 

And their child there in the man's stomach answered thus : 

" Here indeed I am, father. 
Here indeed I am, mother. 
Here ! " 



* Hova houses are always built north and south, and north of the hearth, 
which is an open fireplace of earth and stones, is the place of honour in the 
house. '- 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 249 

So the parent birds heard it and came near ; and coming west 
of the compound called out thus : 

" Gone where is the Httle antsaly ? 
Gone whei-e is the little antsaly f 
Gone where ? " 

So the bird answered again : 

" Here indeed I am, father, 
Here indeed I am, mother, 
Here ! " 

And when the pair heard that, they came into the house and also 
said, " Was it you (pi.) who ate our child ? " Then the children 
in the house answered, " It was daddy who ate it." So the 
birds spoke again, " Why was it that thou atest our child ? " 
But the man answered nothing, but wept profusely. Then the 
birds tore up the man's belly with their claws and got their 
child ; and then the three went home into the woods, but the 
man who would not be warned by wife and children died. 

Rapeto, 

The stories which people relate of this Rapeto are exceed- 
ingly puzzling ; still, we may safely say that they are fabulous. 

The town where he lived, they say, is Ambohidrapeto, west 
of Antananarivo.^ And the fables related of him are these — 

1. They say he was so tall as to touch the skies. And 
although it was at Ambohidrapeto that he ate rice, the rice he 
cooked would be in the forest to the east [that is, twenty miles 
away]. 

2. They say he went to amuse himself at Ambohitrarahaba,^ 
and it was only one step from there to Ambohidrapeto. [The 
places are about six miles apart.] 

3. Those rocks, with hollows like human feet in them, on the 

' Ambohidrapeto, that is, " Town-of-Rapeto," is a small town on a low hill 
about three miles west of the capital. 

^ This is a large village about three miles north of the capital. 



250 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

roadside near Ambohitrarahaba are, they say, the impressions 

of his legs and feet and knees, by which he showed his strength.^ 

4. They say he fetched the moon as a plaything for his 

children ; but he was struck by a meteorolite, and so was killed. 

The Lost Son of God {a Nature-mytK), 
(This piece was obtained from Fisakana.) 

The following is a fable related by the people of old times 
when they met together and talked :— 

The son of God, they say, came down here upon earth, and 
Rakoriaho and Ravao were his nurses. And this son of God, 
'tis said, was lost, and neither he or his nurses could be found. 
And all things of whatever kind sought for him ; whether the 
stones which were below the earth, or the trees which covered 
the earth, or the people which dwelt upon the earth, or the water 
or the beasts. So that everything, whether living creatures or 
things without life, sought him diligently, for the son of God 
was lost. Still, among them all not one found him. And so 
they sent to inquire of God. And when the messengers arrived 
God said, " Let everything stay in the place where it went." So 
the stones went seeking below the earth; and as for the trees, 
the half part stuck fast in the ground, and so became fixed there 
by the word of God, " Stand still " ; and that, they say, caused 
some stones to be below the earth ; and the trees to have their 
roots in the ground, and their branches standing above, so that 
if the roots and the branches separate they die. And the people 
also spread abroad, seeking northward and westward and south- 
ward, and lastly eastwards. (That, they say, is why prayer is 
made towards the east.^) And that is why people are spread 
abroad in various countries. 

* There are certain rocks with some curious hollows in them in the place 
described. They have probably been produced by rain-water and the unequal 
hardness of portions of the surface. 

2 The sacred portion of a Hova house is the north-east corner, the zoro- 
firarazana^ or " corner of invocation " (from the root raryy a chant). 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 25 1 

And God said also, " Let not your mouths cease to utter the 
word * Rakoriaho ' " (and that is said to be the origin of the 
salutation of strangers, Akojy hianao ?) ; and its meaning is as 
if one said, " Is Rakoriaho there ? " And the dog is the pro- 
tector of Ravao ; then said God, " Let not Ravao be absent from 
your mouth." And that is why the dogs say " Vovo," ^ and the 
meaning of that is as if they said, " Is Ravao there ? " 

And the son of God was said to have been lost in the water. 
So God said to the waters, " Ye are not allowed to rest day or 
night, until Rakoriaho and Ravao are found." And that, they 
say, is what keeps the waters moving day and night, for they are 
still seeking Rakoriaho and Ravao, who were the nurses of the 
son of God 

Tke Cause of the Separation of the Five Fingers.'^ 

Each of the fingers, it is said, had their own thoughts, and 
after this fashion : — 

The little finger said, " I am so hungry." 

The next to it answered, "If you're hungry go and steal, 
that you may be satisfied." 

Then said the next also, " Bring plenty, for we shall want 
some." 

And said the forefinger (in Malagasy '^\}i\Q^omX.^xl' fanbndro\ 
" These fellows turn their back on (or give bad advice) to the 
little one ; if one steals won't he be punished ? " 

But the thumb said, " I do not understand these fellows* 
talk, so I'll separate, for I'm big, since you are plotting mis- 
chief" 

And that, they say, was the reason of the fingers separating 
into five, and the thumb opposing the rest. And the two 
middle fingers have no special name,3 because they had bad 

^ An onomatopoetic word in the Hova language for barking. 

= The second and third fingers have no name in Malagasy, while the thumb, 
forefinger, and little finger have each a name of their own. 

3 Literally, the five " branches " ; the fingers, including the thumb, being 
called rantsan-taiiaiia, " branches of the hand." 



252 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

thoughts, and they have no particular business to do, and no 
work they are skilful to perform. 

. The Earth proposing to fight with the Skies. 

The people in former days, it is said, when they wanted to 
pass away the time told a story as follows : — " Once upon a 
time the earth rose up and mounted aloft in order to fight the 
sky. So all parts of the earth agreed to set off at the same 
time, and the rocks, they say, were to be the cannon balls to fire 
at the sky. And early morning was the time fixed to go up. 
But it is said that the plains and the valleys crept slowly and 
sluggishly, and it was full day before they ate their breakfast, 
and so they lagged behind ; and that is the reason of the 
inequality of the valleys and the plains and the mountains, for 
they did not all keep step together. And so the heavens and 
the earth did not mingle, because all the earth did not mount 
up at the same time. 

The Birds agreeing to make a King, 

Once upon a time all the birds on the earth agreed together 
to choose one who should be their king and leader, but the Owl 
did .not come, because it happened that his mate was sitting 
just then. So all the birds agreed that whoever saw the Owl 
and did not beat him should also be an outcast and be treated 
as an enemy. 

For this reason the Owl does not go about by day, but goes 
by night ; for if any birds see him they all strive together to 
beat him. 

And the big Hawk also sought to be king, and appointed 
himself, but the others did not agree to it, so he went away 
from them all at enmity with them. And whatever bird tiiis 
Hawk sees he swoops down upon, because he is their enemy ; 
and the rest chose one who should be their king. So they 
chose the Railbvy (a Shrike, Dicrurus forficatus\ because of his 
good position, and long top-knot, and variety of note. 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES, 253 

And that is said to be why people consider the Railbvy to be 
king of the birds. 

The Sltry and the Antsianisy . 
(These are two small species of Lizard.) 

These creatures are both small animals, yet many people 
pay them honour. They say that when a certain person called 
Rasoavolovoloina has a child born, the Sltry went off to visit 
her, but was stoned and killed. 

Then came the Antsidntsy, and was also stoned by Rasoa 
and killed. 

And when Rasoa went out to feel the sun's warmth, then 
came also the Takatrd ^ (the tufted umber) and the Sltry and 
the Antsidntsy went to the door of Rasoa's house. 

And when evening came on, then the whole of the animals 
came and mourned at the door and devoured the child of Rasoa,. 
and every one of them, it is said, lamented. And on account 
of that, Rasoavolovoloina took an oath (or invoked a curse),, 
saying: "If any of my descendants should kill a Sltry or an 
Antsidntsy they must wrap up its corpse in silk." 2 

There are still many people who believe this story, and dare 
not kill either of the lizards ; and should they accidentally kill 
them, they wrap the corpse in a silk cloth. " Those who kill 
them," say some folks, " will die young." 

The Hawk and the Hen. 

A Hawk, they say, had a son born to her, and a Hen came 
to nurse her. And after the Hawk had been nursed a week she 
went to take exercise, and gave her son to the Hen to nurse. 
But when it was broad day and the hawk did not come, the 
Hen grew angry and killed the young one. 

So when the Hawk came home and saw its young one dead^ 

^ Many native superstitions have collected about the bird. Yide Antananarivo 
Annual, Vol. IV., 1891, p. 295. 

= Malagasy corpses are wrapped in red silk lanihas. 



254 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

it was enraged and beat the Hen, but the Hen held its ground, 
for they were equal in strength. 

After some time, not seeing what to do, the Hawk invoked 
a curse, saying : " Whoever would be my true offspring must 
kill the young of this Hen, because she killed my young one." 

And that is said to be the reason why the hawk eats 
chickens, but not hens. 

The Vazhnba. 

The Vazimba, it is said, lived in this part of the island [that 
is, in Imerina, the central province of Madagascar] in former 
times ; and as to their appearance they are said to have been 
small people with little heads ; and it is reported that they still 
exist on the western coast. (See Chap. H., p. 26.) 

One day a Vazimba went to play by the water and took 
the animal called "the seven-headed Fandny " (see p. 231) ; and 
when the snake called Tbrnpondrdno (that is, " lord of the 
water ") passed by, the Vazimba sent him with this message, 
" Go," said he, " speak thus to father and mother, ' This is the 
word of thy son, Ravazimba : I have gone under the water and 
send you my farewells ; therefore offer the blood of some living 
creature, and its feet, and hair or feathers, and the fat, for if you 
do thus you shall be blessed.' " So the snake went, they say. 

This is the reason some give for calling certain snakes 
Tbrnpondrdno. They believe that the Vazimba gave them 
power, and hardly any one will kill these creatures ; and should 
any one dare kill one they will wrap it up in silk." ^ 

And some time after that the Vazimba sent the Kingfisher 
to his father and mother with this message, " Salutation to 
father and mother, and say to them : ' Thus saith Ravazimba, 
send me fowls and sheep.' " And when the Kingfisher had 
thus spoken he returned to Vazimba again, who said to him, 
" Because you were diligent and wise I will give you honour ; 

^ Following the same custom as when people are buried, corpses being 
wrapped in red silk lambas. 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 255 

I will put a crown on your head, and clothe you with purple 
by day and night ; when you lay eggs I will nurse you ; and if 
any one kills you, them will I kill while young." And that is 
why the Kingfisher is so beautiful, and makes its hole for a nest 
by the water. Therefore up to the present time many people 
dare not kill or eat the Kingfisher. Many believe this, and 
honour the little bird so called. 

Here in Imerina many people used to supplicate of the 
Vazimba thus : "If thou wilt prosper me," or, " If I recover 
from this disease," or "If my child, or my wife bears a child," 
&c., &c., " then I will anoint thee [meaning the ancient graves 
called Vazimba graves] with fat and will reverence thee, and 
then I will sacrifice sheep and fowls in thine honour." 

The Chameleon and the Lizard. 

These two creatures, it is said, are children of sisters born of 
one mother,^ and one day they happened to be sitting together 
at the foot of a tree. The Lizard began the conversation thus : 
"A pleasant thing it is to live, good friend." The Chameleon 
replied, " Living is pleasant enough, but life is full of danger." 
The Lizard was astonished to hear that, and said, " You, fellow, 
think so because you're so thin and have bulging eyes." The 
Chameleon replied, "And you, fellow, imagine so because 
you're ugly and dirty-brown coloured, that's why." 

And thus the two abused one another until Raolombelona 
(Mr. Human-being) came up, and they were each startled. The 
Lizard slunk into his hole, and the Chameleon climbed up the 
tree, and it is said they were never friends afterwards. 

The Serpent and the Frog, 

Once upon a time the Serpent called Manditra [a species of 
boa] swallowed a Frog, and the Frog began to revile the Serpent 

^ Sisters' children are considered by the Malagasy as almost the same as 
children of the same mother ; they could no more intermarry than can brothers 
and sisters, while the marriage of brothers' children is quite common. 



256 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

thus : " What a speckled appearance, and a blunt head, and 
goggle eyes ! What's become of your feet and hands ? " So 
the Serpent answered, " My feet are worn off in pursuing you 
frogs ; and my eyes stand out because dim with looking after 
you ; and my skin is speckled because I'm full of your precious 
father ! " 

So the Frog was angry and cursed the Serpent ; and that 
is why it is hotly pursued by the serpents. 

The Rice and the Sugar-cane. 

The Sugar-cane, they say, came to the Rice, to seek friend- 
ship with it, and spake thus to it : " I say, O Sir Rice, come, 
let us be relatives and friends together, and share together the 
difficult and the bitter, making no difference, for we have one 
origin, for each is the produce of the ground ; besides that, alike 
are the things befalling and the things obtained ; equal while 
living, similar in death. Why look, our names even are almost 
alike, there's but a slight difference between vary (rice) ^.ndifary 
(sugar-cane) ; so let us strike up a firm friendship." 

The Rice, however, it is said, answered thus : " Your words 
are true enough when you relate and particularise our origin, 
for we certainly are both the produce of the ground, equal while 
living, and similar in death. But still, here's something which 
prevents us agreeing, so it's no use, for it's a thing we can't 
agree about ; so let there not be that friendship, and do not you 
blame us. For it's an exceedingly bad thing to agree without 
thought ; for those who go along with fishermen, they say, 
stink of fish ; those who make friends with vagabonds are 
themselves vagrants ; and those who make friends with workers 
are workers themselves. And so you see, my good fellow, the 
reason of our declining friendship with you is your changing in 
the end ; and that is why we can't join together. For you see 
that we have not that changing, whatever may befall us. You 
see that we are damped to become rotten, and when we have 
become so, we are soon put in the ground ; but after a little 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 257 

time we are still rice all the same. And when we have become 
green on the earth again, then we are uprooted and stuck in the 
ground, where there is much water ; yet we do not change, but 
still remain rice. And after growing again until we are ripe, we 
are then reaped with the knife ; yet we do not change, but still 
remain rice. And after stopping a little while more, we are 
then beaten on the stone ; yet we do not change, but still 
remain rice. And not only so, but we are buried in the rice 
pit ; we do not change, but still remain rice. And also, we are 
drawn out thence, and dried in the sun ; and when dry we are 
pounded in the mortar and our skin stripped from us, yet we do 
not change, but still remain rice. And not only so, but we are 
put into the cooking pot and covered with water, and heated 
with a fierce fire ; and unless well boiled and thoroughly soft, 
we are not removed from it. And when removed we are 
chewed, and when masticated are swallowed. And in all these 
calamities which overtake and befall us we do not change, but 
still remain rice. And the land where we are not found is called 
famine-stricken, and the country where we are not found is 
called desolate. 

" But as for you sugar-canes, on the other hand, you are 
cut down and chopped up, and stuck about in the ground ; and 
then you do not change at all, but are still sugar-cane. And 
after you have grown and become tall, you are cut down with 
the knife ; and still you do not change, but are still sugar-cane. 
And afterwards you are chewed into fibres with the teeth and 
crushed in the mill, but yet that does not change you, for you 
are still sugar-cane. 

" But that is not all, for you are steeped in a great pot ; and 
|, after a little while you are put into a boiling pot and heated 



mtensely by the fire a long time, and after you thicken, they 
stop. And upon that you change, and take another name, that 
is, sugar. 

" And when you have been sent back to the boiler again, 
then you no longer are a substance in a lump any more, but 

18 



258 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

become steam and distilled drops, and go out along a bamboo 
or a brass pipe, and emerging thence, you become rum, making 
wise men fools, and are no longer sugar-cane. So that we 
cannot be friends with you sugar-cane," said the Rice. 

Ikotofetsy and Imahaka^ 

One day, it is said, Ikotofetsy and Imahaka displayed an 
idol, but it was only a piece of manioc-root which they had 
covered with scarlet cloth.^ And the day was very cloudy, 
and just as if heavy rain was coming on ; the wind also blew 
very hard. So they called the people together, and bade them 
assemble in an open space ; and then they brought out the idol, 
but it did not move 3 (because it was Only manioc-root). So 
Ikotofetsy and Imahaka said, " Since we brought out the god, and 
you did not bring tribute to him, he will not show you his 
glory, and is angry ; therefore there will be heavy rains to-day, 
and the waters will be flooded." (At the same time they knew 
well that rain would fall plentifully, and the streams be all 
flooded.) Accordingly, the rain soon fell heavily on that day, 
and the waters were indeed all flooded ; and the people were all 
exceedingly astonished, and feared greatly. 

Then Ikotofetsy and Imahaka procured a serpent (called 
Mdnditrd), and wrapped it up in scarlet cloth as they had done 
with the piece of manioc-root, and placed it in a basket. And 
the two fellows spoke thus to the people : " This is the 
word of our god : he was angry yesterday, but we besought 
him, and so the heavy rain ceased ; so now look, for he will 

^ This is one of a number of short stories which are very popular with the 
Malagasy, giving the adventures and various tricks of two clever rogues. The 
most complete collection of these was published at Antananarivo some years ago. 
The meaning of Ikotofetsy is the " cunning lad " ; that of Imahaka is not quite 
so clear, it perhaps means "the light-fingered one," or one able to carry off by 
theft. 

^ Malagasy idols were of no great size, and were usually covered with red 
cloth. 

3 It was believed that the idols had power to make their bearers move or stop, 
according to the will of the idol. 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 259 

appear to-day, therefore let us all dance, and every one bring 
an offering." So they brought the serpent in the basket, and 
set it down on the ground, and it struggled violently, because it 
was a living creature. So the people were all confounded and 
filled with fear, and every one danced a long time. Then they 
each paid a little money as an offering, and the two men, it is 
said, collected on that day money to the amount of ten thousand 
pieces. So they put back the serpent into the basket again. 
And then they said to the people, " Should any of you be ill, 
come here to us, and bring money to the value of a halfpenny 
and twopence, and a red cock, as an offering. Besides which, 
if you will forget the god, you will die young." 

And so, it is said, numbers of people worshipped that 
manioc-root, and the two men became very rich. And after 
that also many of the people fetched [what they supposed to 
be] pieces of the idol, but it was only pieces of wood which 
Ikotofetsy and Imahaka gave them. 

Rasbalavavolo. 

Under water, it is said, is the home of Rasoalavavolo, and 
she is beautiful, and has very long hair, and that is why she is 
called Rasoalavavolo {lava vblo is " long-haired "). Some say 
she is a Vazimba,i but others say that she belongs to one of the 
conquered royal families. Both stories, however, are equally 
untrue, since the whole account is a fiction. 

They say, nevertheless, that a woman named Rasoavolovo- 
loina went to visit her, and to ask for a child,^ and offered two 
silver rings, and had given to her two round smooth stones, 
which, they say, became two male children. When the two 
brothers grew up they went to visit Rasoalavavolo under the 

^ One of the supposed aboriginal inhabitants of the central provinces of 
Madagascar, see ante, p, 26. 

^ This is what native women very often do, visiting some of the numerous 
sacred stones and presenting small offerings, in the hope that they may bear 
children. 



260 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

water, and offered her a string of coral beads, but she happened 
to be asleep when the brothers came, and so did not talk with 
them (lit, " blew water on them ") and they were the ancestors 
of all the people who have lived since that time here in 
Madagascar. 

And there are still many who believe this fable, and who 
come to the story-tellers to beg for children, but it is only a 
piece of fiction. 

The Wild-hog and the Rat 

Once upon a time, 'tis said, a Wild-hog and a Rat chanced 
to meet, and the Rat saluted the other, saying, " How do you 
do, say I ? " So the Wild-hog replied, " Oh, I'm tolerably well, 
but how are you, young friend ? " " Oh, I'm very well," said the 
Rat, saying at the same time, " Come, my elder brother, let us 
have a game." The Wild-hog replied, " Well, all right, young 
friend ; but what sort of a game shall we have ? " " Let us 
collect dry grass, and when we have got plenty, let us cover 
ourselves with it and set it on fire. Said the Wild-hog, " Oh, 
that's a good idea, but perhaps you would not dare do it ? " 
" Oh, I'll venture it, but if I should shirk it, I'll never eat food 
again ; and you also, if you daren't venture it, then you must 
not eat from this time forth," said the Rat. " Agreed," replied 
the Wild-hog. So they pledged each other to keep their 
word. 

Then said the Wild-hog, " Now you shall go in first, and 
I'll go afterwards." Very well," said the Rat, pushing himself 
into the midst of the fuel ; but he burrowed rapidly into the 
ground, and hid himself in the hole. Presently the Wild-hog 
called out, " Shall I light it now ? " " Yes," said the Rat. So 
the Wild-hog set fire to the heap, but it did not hurt the Rat, as 
he was safe in che hole. So as soon as it was all burnt up, out 
he came unhurt, and strutting about and looking very big, he 
shouted out, " What do you say to that ? How's that ? " 
adding, " Come, you must go too, Mr. Wild-hog." 



MALAGASY FOLK-TALES AND FABLES. 26 1 

" Entered, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Pushed in, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Is taken in, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Is snugly hid, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Is covered up, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Is choked, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Sleeps, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
The Wild-hog, ah ! 
Breathes hard, the Wild-hog, ah ! 
Endures, the Wild-hog, ah ! " 

So he set fire to the dry grass, and soon it was in a blaze ; 
but alas for the poor Wild-hog, who struggled and turned 
about, for his back was scorched ; so he cried out, " Help me, 
Mr. Rat, I am burnt ; help me, younger brother, for I'm scorch- 
ing ; help me, my friend, or I'm consumed ; help me, you 
wretch, or I'm killed." 

But the Rat gave him no help for all that, for he was 

splitting with laughter, but he danced about, and shouted out 

thus : — 

" Burn away, fire ! 
Go along, fire ! 
Consume him, O fire ! 
Blaze away, fire ! 
Die, Mr, Worn-out ! 
Die, you old wretch ! 
Die, old Spade-mouth ! 
Die, old Fetch-what-you-see ! 
Die, old Short-loin-cloth ; 
Die, old Snout-grubber ! 

How do you like it ? 

How are j^ou now ? 
Soon you are done for. 
Soon you squeal out. 
Soon you are shrivelled, 
Soon you are doubled up, 
Soon you won't move." 

But after a little the Wild-hog made a desperate effort and 
got out from among the fire, but his skin and his fore and hind 
feet were terribly burnt, although he was still alive. So the 
Rat said, "It was all a joke of mine, but go and bathe in the 
water." So the Wild-hog went and did so, but as soon as he 
had bathed he was dead. 



CHAPTER XIIL 

DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY, TOGETHER WITH 
NATIVE IDEAS AS TO FATE AND DESTINY. 

The Sikldy — Subject investigated by Mr. Dahle — Little organised idolatry 
among the Malagasy — Diviners — Divination and fate — Invocation of the 
Sikldy — Sixteen figures of the Sikldy — Sixteen columns of the Sikldy — 
Erecting the Sikldy — Working of the Sikldy — Identical figures — Unique 
figures — Combined figures — Miscellaneous Sikldy — Gun charms — Trade 
charms — Medicinal charms — Fortunate places and days — Ati-pako — Fate 
as told by zodiac and moon — Lucky and unlucky days — House divination 
— Fate as told by the planets — Days of the week — Decreasing influence of 
the Sikldy. 

FOR more than two centuries past it has been well known 
to those Europeans who have resided for any length of 
time in Madagascar, that a somewhat elaborate system of 
divination, called Sikldy or Sikily^ is practised by almost all the 
various tribes inhabiting the island. Within the last five or six 
years the subject has been investigated in a most complete 
manner by the Rev. Lars Dahle, and I propose to give in this 
chapter a summary of the information Mr. Dahle has obtained, 
omitting many of the minuter points of philology. Mr. Dahle 
has brought to his researches a very accurate knowledge of 
Arabic, as well as of the Semitic languages generally, and hence 
he has thrown a flood of light upon what had previously been 
hopelessly obscure. 

Mr. Dahle thus describes the native beliefs in the efficacy of 
divination : — " If you want to look into the future, to detect 
secret enemies or dangers, to find out what is to be your lot of 

good or evil, the sikldy is the means of doing it. And the best 

262 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 263 

of it is that it does not, like the Fates or Parces of old, merci- 
lessly leave you to your destiny, but kindly undertakes to avert 
the dreaded evils. If you are sick, the mpisikidy or diviner does 
not at all — like many of our modern doctors — treat you ' ten- 
tatively,' which really means leaving you and nature to settle 
the matter between yourselves as best you can ; neither are 
they shallow-minded enough to treat the case merely * sympto- 
matically.' As diligent men, they set to work immediately, 
and, as truly scientific doctors, they first try to find out the 
cause of the evil, and then the means of removing it. And if 
they can give you no other benefit in a desperate case, they will 
at least cheer up your spirits with a good assurance, generally 
terminating in a very emphatic phrase, to the effect that ' if 
you die, you shall be buried on the top of their head.' And 
even if your spirit has actually left you, they do not give you 
up in despair, as I shall have occasion to point out subsequently. 

" I am, however, reluctantly forced to admit that I am not 
able entirely to exculpate my friends from the accusation that 
there is a slight tinge of medical heresy about them, inasmuch 
as their old system oifaditra {i.e., expiatory offerings or piaculd) 
seems to rest upon the homoeopathic principle, Siniilia similibus 
curantur ; for t\iQ fdditra (i.e., the thing the diviner ordered to 
be thrown away to prevent or avert an evil) was generally 
something that in name, shape, or number, &c., was similar to 
the evil in question. For example, if the sikidy brought out 
maty roa (" two deaths "), two locusts should be killed and 
thrown away, to prevent the death of two men ; if it brought 
out mardry (' sick '), a piece of the tree called Hdzo mardry 
(' sick tree') should be made 2.fdditral' and so on. 

" The people had a remarkable trust in their diviners and 
their art ; this appears even in the names by which they called 
them. In Imerina and Betsileo (the two most important central 
provinces of the island), it was quite common to style them 
simply Ny mdsina (' The sacred ones '), a term which, however, 
did not so much imply sanctity as strength and superhuman 



264 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

power. In the outlying provinces — especially in the south and 
west — they are generally called ambiasa or omhiasy, as they 
were also called among the Antanosy at Fort Dauphin as early 
as the time of Flacourt, and this term is the Arabic ambiay 
' prophet.' 

" The word sikidy (probably from the Arabic sichr, ' charm, 
incantation ') has been generally translated ' divination,' but 
it has a somewhat wider sense, as it includes both the in- 
vestigation of what is secret, and the art of finding out the 
remedy for it, if it proves to be of such a nature that such a 
remedy is required ; but the second depends on the first. There 
are three kinds of sikidy which are employed almost exclusively 
in finding out what is secret ; while the other kinds have more 
to do with remedying the evils. The first class, however, forms 
sikidy par excellence, manipulated according to a rather intricate 
system ; the second class depends upon it, and seems to be of a 
somewhat more arbitrary character." 

Before proceeding further, a word or two must be said as to 
the Malagasy notions of vintana or fate, as the practice of the 
sikidy largely depends on these beliefs. The word vintana 
Mr. Dahle believes to be an obsolete collateral form of the 
Malagasy word kintana, " a star " (Malayan bintang), and, in its 
restricted meaning, denotes the destiny of a man as depending 
on the times as declared by the stars at the time of birth, and 
also the fitness (or the reverse) of certain times for certain 
actions {e.g., for a burial). The first of these was the vintana 
proper ; the second was more accurately styled San-andro 
(literally, " the hours of the day," from the Arabic sda, " hour," 
but also used in a wider sense of " any moment." As might be 
inferred from its name (if the above explanation of it be 
correct), the vintana in its turn rests upon astrology. The 
different days of the month, and the months throughout the 
year, are each supposed to be connected with different constel- 
lations. Mr. Dahle has shown that the native names of the 
months are all Arabic in origin, and are the names of the twelve 



DIVINATION A^IONG THE MALAGASY. 265 

Signs of the Zodiac, while the names for the separate days of 
the months are the twenty-eight " Moon-stations " on which the 
Malagasy (originally Arabic) chronology and astrology depend. 
In the san-andro an important part is played by the " Seven 
Planets " of the ancients, that is, including the sun and moon, 
not excluding the earth, and of course also the more distant 
planets, which were then not known at all. The astrologers 
had, however, a good deal to do outside the domain of astrology 
and fate, for they had not only to find out, and, if necessary, 
counteract the influences of nature, but also those of bad spirits 
and bad men, as well as of the evil eye. 

I. The Awakening of the Sikidy. — The sikldy was 
generally manipulated with beans or certain seeds, especially 
those of \\\Q.fano tree, a species of acacia. ^ When the mpisikidy 
had placed a heap of these seeds or beans before him and was 
about to begin, he inaugurated his proceedings with a solemn 
invocation, calling upon God to awaken nature and men, that 
these might awaken the sikidy to tell the truth. The following 
is the formula used : — 

" Awake, O God, to awaken the sun ! Awake, O sun, to 
;awaken the cock ! Awake, O cock, to awaken mankind ! 
Awake, O mankind, to awaken the sikidy — not to tell lies, not 
to deceive, not to play tricks, not to talk nonsense, not to agree 
to anything indiscriminately ; but to search into the secret, to 
look into what is beyond the hills and on the other side of the 
forest, to see what no human eye can see. 

" Wake up, for thou art from the long-haired Silamo 
(Moslem Arabs), from the high mountains, from Raboroboaka 
and others " (here follow nine long names). " Awake ! for we 
have not got thee for nothing, thou art dear and expensive. 
We have hired thee in exchange for a fat cow with a large 
hump, and for money on which there was no dust. Awake ! for 
thou art the trust of the sovereign and the judgment of the 
people. If thou art a sikidy that can tell, that can see, and does 

^ Piptadcnia chrysostachys. 



266 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

not only speak of the noise of the people, the hen killed by its 
owner, the cattle slaughtered in the market, the dust clinging 
to the feet {i.e., self-evident things), awake here on the mat ! 

" But if thou art a sikidy that does not see, a sikidy that 
agrees to everything indiscriminately, and makes the dead living 
and the living dead, then do not arise here on the mat." 

It is evident that the sikidy was looked upon as the special 
means used by God for making known His will to men ; and 
it is at the same time characteristic enough that it was thought 
necessary to " awaken " God {cf. i Kings xviii. 27). In the long 
list of persons through whom the people are said to have got 
the sikidy are the Silamo (from " Islam "), chiefly Arabs, who 
are also called Karany, " readers," i.e.., those who read the Koran. 
Several other Arabic words occur in this invocation, as well as 
in the whole terminology connected with the sikidy, as will be 
noticed further on. Most of the names given above, in the list 
of " authorities " from whom the Malagasy are said to have 
received the practice of divination, are rather obscure. Among 
them is that of the " Vazhnba," who are supposed to be the 
aboriginal inhabitants of the island before the arrival of its 
present Malayo-Polynesian and Melanesian colonists. They 
may be mentioned either because the diviners were anxious to 
have the sikidy connected with everything that was mysterious 
and pointed back to the mythical days of old ; or, possibly, 
because the Vazimba were really the people who first received 
the sikidy from the Arabs, and that the other tribes in their 
turn got it from the Vazimba. 

It may be added that individual mpisikidy of any repute 
seem each to have had their own form of invocation, or at least 
made considerable variations in the wording of it, although its 
general bearing seems to have been very much the same. 

II. The Sixteen Figures of the Sikidy. — Having 
finished his invocation, the diviner began to work the sikidy 
(lit, "to raise it up "), taking beans ox fano seeds, and arranging 
them on a mat on the floor according to rules to be presently 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 



267 



Sakalava. 


Arabs ofE. Africa. 


Asombola 


Asombola 


Alizaha 


Alahoty 


Asoralahy 


Alasady 


Karija 


Tabata horojy 


Taraiky 


Asaratany 


Alakaosy 


Tabadahila 


Adabara 


Afaoro 


Alikisy 


Alijady 


Alatsimay 


Alizaoza 


Alakarabo 


Alakarabo 


Betsivongo 


Adizony 


Adalo 


Alahamaly 


Alahotsy 


Alakaosy 


Alikola 


Adalo (?) 


Alihimora 


Alihimora 


Alabiavo 


Bihiava 



explained. These beans or seeds must be represented by dots. 
They were as follows : — 



Hova Names. 

1. I: Jama (or Zoma) 

2. :": Alahizany 

3. .=. Asoralahy ... 

4. A Votsira (= Vontsira) 

5. \ Taraiky 

6. V Saka 

7. •;• Asoravavy 

8. :.i Alikisy..." 

9. •=• Aditsima (Aditsimay) 

10. •;• Kizo 

11. .;. Adikasajy 

12. :•: Vanda mitsangana (= Mikarija) 

13. •:• Vanda miondrika (= Molahidy) 

14. •'.= Alokola 

15. :": Alaimora 

16. :•: Adibijady 



The names in the first row are those in use in the interior ; 
the order seems immaterial, but that here followed seems most 
systematic, commencing with the fullest form ( ji), and taking 
away one bean (or dot) for each figure until only four ( j ) are 
left, and then adding one again to each, by which proceeding 
we get the first eight figures. The next eight are formed by 
placing twos and ones in various combinations. The theory 
of the whole is evidently that not more than eight beans can 
be used in any figure, and that all of the figures must contain 
four in length (or height), while there may be two or one in 
breadth. The names in the second and third columns were 
obtained from an Arab trader, and are, several of them at least, 
easily recognisable as the Arabic names for several of the 
months, but for many centuries naturalised among the Malagasy; 
and these, as already mentioned, are the Arabic names for the 
Signs of the Zodiac, while others seem to be those of the Moon- 
stations. Mr. Dahle has minutely examined the list of Hova 
names, some of which are Malagasy, but obscure in meaning, 
while most of them appear to be of Arabic origin, and several 
are also evidently derived from astrology ; among others, the 



268 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

constellations Virgo, Aries, Aquarius, Sagittarius, Pisces, and 
Capricornus seem to be denoted. 

III. The Sixteen Columns of the Sikidy (lit, "The 
Sixteen Mothers of Sikidy "). — To the sixteen figures, or various 
combinations of the beans or seeds by ones and twos in the 
sikidy, correspond the sixteen columns (called by Mr. Dahle 
" rubrics "), places, or rows, in which they are arranged in 
working the oracle ; one figure being placed in each column, 
not, however, that all the figures must necessarily occur. The 
same figure may occur more than once, and some of the sixteen 
figures may not occur at all in the sixteen columns, as that is 
purely a matter of chance. If the columns are arranged in the 
manner usual in the practice of sikidy, we get the combination 
of squares given on the next page. 

It will be seen at a glance, however, that we have got more 
than sixteen names here, although the rows or columns are 
really not more than twelve, corresponding probably to the 
twelve Signs of the Zodiac. If a skilful diviner is asked for 
Ny sikidy i6 reny, he will only enumerate the names given in 
the first (top) row ( Tale — Vohitrd), the four to the right of it 
{Zatbvo — Fdhavdlo), and the eight below {Trdno — Fdhasivy), 
giving us the sixteen complete. The others seem to be con- 
sidered as accessory and of secondary importance. Some of 
them are simply repetitions, with this difference, that they refer 
to things in another person's house, not in that of the inquirer 
for whom the sikidy operation in question is undertaken. 
Others are placed to the left side of the lower square, and others 
at the six corners. 

Mr. Dahle proceeds to investigate each of the thirty-four 
words shown in the diagram ; and points out that while the 
majority of them are Malagasy, about four or five are evidently 
Arabic. The Malagasy words are those in ordinary everyday 
use, as those for wealth, relations, village, youth, woman, enemy, 
house, road, inquirer, God, diviner, wild-cat, dog, sheep, goat, 
fowl, much bloodshed, &c. Of the four or five derived from the 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 



269 



Arabic, the first word, Tale, apparently meaning " investigator " 
or "explorer," always represents in the sikldy the person or 
thing concerning whom (or which) the inquiry is made. 

In reading or examining the columns, the first four [Tale 
— Vohitrd) and the eight below {Trctno — Fcthasivy) are read 
from above downwards. The eight to the right {Zatbvo — Firia- 
ridvand) are read from right to left. The four to the left 



€-. 


5 


11 


5 






• 


• 


• 


•• 


Zatovo 


tj:, > 


• 


• 


•• 


• 


Manna 


4.-^, 


• 


• 


• 


e* 


Vehivdvy 

r/v 


Tsmin 'ny 
vilona 




• 


• • 


e« 


• 


Fdha- 
vdlo 




• 


•• 


• 


• 


• 


• 


• 


• 


Zatovo antrano 
hafa 


Alrka 


• 


• 








e* 





• 


CO 


Mdrwa,do. 


0/on- 
drdtsy 


• 


• 


• 9 


• • 


• • 


• 


• 


• • 


Vehivdvyf do 


Kororozy - 


• • 


• • 


• 


• • 


• 


• e 


• 


• 


Finariava/ia 
do. 




Si 




g 

'i 


11? 
Ill 


1 


§ 
^ 

•^ 


'.2 





1213 & 



Arrangemeat of Columns in the Sikldy Divination, 
ARRANGEMENT OF COLUMNS IN THE SIKIDY DIVINATION. 



{Kororbsy — Tsinin' ny velond) are read from left to right, while 
the names at the corners are read diagonally. 

IV. The Erecting of the SikIdy {i.e., the placing 
of the figures in the columns). — So far, we have only seen the 
machinery, so to speak, with which the divination is worked ; 
now let us try to understand how the diviner proceeded in order 
to gain the information desired in the great variety of inquiries 



2/0 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

made of him. In the diagram here given, all the columns are 
filled with figures, just as a veritable mpisikldy would do, except 
that dots are used instead of beans or seeds. The rules for 
"erecting the sikidy'' will now be given. 

1. The first four columns {Tale — Vbhitra) are filled with 
figures in the following manner. From the heap of beans 
before him the mpisikldy takes a handful at random, and from 
this handful he takes out two and two until he has either two 
or one left. If two are left, he puts two beans, if one, one bean, 
into the first or upper square of Tale. In the same manner he 
fills the remaining three, Harena^ Fahatelo^ and Vbhitra^ square 
by square, from above downwards. 

2. When these four columns — one of which represents the 
person or thing regarding whom or which the sikidy is made — 
are filled in the manner described, the remaining eight are filled 
by a combination of these first four, or of others that have 
already been filled by a combination of these. This is done in 
such a manner that two figures are chosen and compared square 
by square from above downwards. If this combination gives an 
odd number {i.e.^ if one of the two combined squares has one 
bean, and the other two), only one bean is put in the corre- 
sponding square of the new figure to be formed ; but if it gives 
an even number {i.e., if the two combined squares both contain 
one bean, or both two beans), two beans are put into the new 
figure. 

3. These combinations are subjected to the following rules : — 

{a) Tale and Harena {i.e., a combination of the two in the manner 
described), form Lalana. 

(b) Fahaielo and Vbhitra form Asbrotdny. 

(c) Lalana and Asbrotany form Mpanontany. 

(d) Zatbvo and Marina form Nia. 

{e) Vehivavy and Fdhavdlo form Fdhaslvy. 

(/) Nta and Fahasivy form Mdsina. 

(g) Masina and Mpcinonidny form Andrianianitra. 

(Ji) Andriamaniira and Tale form Trdiw. 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 2Jl 

A glance at the diagram here given will show that all the 
eight figures below have actually been formed according to 
these rules. If we, for instance, compare Tale and H arena, 
from which Lctlana is to be formed, we get dissimilar 
numbers all the way, as all the pairs of squares have one 
and two, and consequently Lctlana gets only one bean in all 
its squares. Exactly the same procedure — mutatis mutandis 
— takes place in the filling in of the remaining seven columns 
below. 

V. The Working of the Sikidy. — When the sikidy is 
" erected " or arranged in the manner just described, the 
question arises : What is to be done with it } How to work 
it so as to get an answer to your questions, a medicine for your 
sickness, or a charm against the evils of which you may be 
apprehensive, &c. ? 

Let it be remarked at the outset, that the sikidy properly 
deals with questions put to it. To answer these is its proper 
function. But if you ask what is the root of an evil, or the 
means of removing or averting it, &c., the answer will of course 
point out to you the cure of your evils as well, and so far, 
appear as ars medica. There are, however, kinds of sikidy in 
which no question is put, but the remedy for the evil is pre- 
scribed at once. But as these are rather different from the 
ordinary .s-^/^i^-process, they will be noticed in a separate 
section. What concerns us now is, the ordinary sikidy^ the 
business of which is to give answers to our questions. 

The first thing to be done, after having " erected the sikidy I' 
is to see what figure we have got in the column named Andria- 
manitra (God) ; for, out of the sixteen figures, only half of them 
(Nos. I, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14) are considered to "agree" with 
Andrlamanitra. These are called the " Nobles " or " Kings " of 
the sikidy^ whereas the remaining eight are called its " Slaves." 
If any of these latter figures happen to get into the said column, 
the sikidy becomes invalid, and the whole has to be broken up 
and commenced anew ; for the sikidy has not done proper 



272 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

honour to God in putting a slave in His column, and cannot be 
expected to tell the truth in His name. 

This point, however, being successfully arranged, the next 
business is to choose one of the four first columns {Tale — 
Vbhiti'd) to represent the question, or, rather, the person or 
thing it refers to. As Tale is to represent everything that 
cannot be put under the headings " property," " relations," or 
" village," the choice cannot be very puzzling ; but this being 
settled, the proceedings branch out into the following parts, 
which Mr. Dahle terms : (a) The Sikldy of Identical Figures ; 
(b) The Sikldy of Different Figures ; and (c) The Sikldy of 
Combined Figures. 

A. The Sikldy of Identical Figures. — Having settled which 
of the four first columns is to represent the question, the next 
thing is to examine which of the sixteen figures happens to be 
in the column representing it. This being found, we go on 
examining all the other figures except the others of the first 
four (for these have nothing to do with the answer), that is to 
say, those on the right side, those on the left, and those on the 
two corners to the left. 

If we, thus examining them, find that any of them is like the 
one representing the inquiry, this may or may not settle the 
question, or, in other words, give us the answer. This depends 
on the nature (name) of the column in which it is found. This 
Mr. Dahle illustrates thus : " If I expect a ship, and am going 
to inquire about its coming by means of the sikldy^ the column 
H arena (or property) will of course represent it. If in this 
column I find, for instance, the figure Jama ( H ), and on further 
examination find the same figure in the column Trano (house), 
this gives me no answer, as there is no natural connection 
between the two conceptions. If, on the contrary, I find the 
same figure in the column called Lalana (road), then of course I 
know that the ship is at any rate on the way, I have then got 
an answer to the chief question ; but there may still be good 
reasons for a sharp look-out, for there may be difficulties in its 



I 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 



273 



way. Suppose that I also find the same figure in the column 
named Fahavalo (enemy), my mind will immediately be filled 
with gloomy apprehensions of pirates ! Not a bit more cheerful 
will be my prospects if I find the same figure under Ra be man- 
driaka (much bloodshed). But what a consolation, on the other 
hand, if the same figure reappears in the column Nia (food) ; 
for then I must certainly be a blockhead if I do not understand 
that, although the ship may have a long voyage, there is no 
scarcity of food on board ; and so on. It is easy enough to see 
that a man with much practice and a good deal of imagination 
could produce much ' information ' in this manner ; and I 
suppose that in a good many cases the mpisikidy were able to 
find an answer already in this first act of their proceedings, even 
if the means of finding it might seem scanty enough to ordinary 
mortals." 

But there is much more still that may be done ; for, besides 
the answers available from the fact of the identity of the figure 
representing the question with one or more of those in the other 
columns, it is of great importance to find out whether any two 
or more of the other figures are alike, and in how many columns 
the same figure occurs in a sikidy. The detailed particulars 
given by Mr. Dahle on the point may be put, for the sake of 
brevity, into a tabular form : — 



Columns with 


same Figures. 


Native Word for 
Combination. 


Meaning. 


I. Fahaslvy 


and Masina 


= Tsi-rbngatra 


= does not move or agitate. 


2. 


)) 


Nla 


= Mati-rda 


= two deaths ; this is, two will 
die, but two locusts may 
be thrown away as a 
faditra or piacuhim. 


3. Fahatelo 


,, 


Harena 


= Vahbaka 


= a crowd of people. 


4, Traiio 


J, 


Mpanontany = Tslndrilasy 


= enemy approaching. 


5- „ 


)) 


Lalana 


= Sampona 


= hindrances expected. 


6 Andro 


M 


Asbrotany 


= Lahi-antitra 


= old man ; that is, the sick 
will recover, and reach 
old age. 


7. Fahaslvy 


)) 


Asorotany 


= Ravbakbny 


= a mouthful thrown out (?). 


8. Vohitrd 


J> 


Fahatelo 


= Fotbaii-tsi-mi 


hatra = the fixed time will not be 
kept. 


9. Lalana 


» 


ma 


== Fehi-tsi-rbso 


= the troops will not advance. 



19 



274 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The following five possibilities refer to somewhat different 
cases, thus : — 

10. If the figure Alokbla (::) occurs three times in different columns, three 
stones are to be thrown away as 2,faditra to avert evil, 

11. If Vanda mitsangana ( v ) occurs three times, the feathers of a white hen 
are to be 3.faditra. 

12. If Alaimbra ( ':'. ) occurs twice, it means that the son of a mighty man is 
likely to be a mighty man too. 

13. If Scika ( V ) occurs in Trano and Vontstra ( l ) in Tale, or Alaimbra 
( X ) in Trano, and Adihijady ( v ) in Tale, the case will follow the analogy of 
the one preceding it ; e.g., if my child, who was formerly ill, was cured, this one 
will be cured ; if it died, this one will die too. 

14. If a sikldy happens to contain eight Voiitslra ( A ) they are called " the 
eight healthy men," and are considered an excellent remedy against disease, as 
will be shown later on. 

It is evident that many of these " meanings " can be con- 
strued into answers to questions, although the general tendency 
of many of them seems to be rather to point out the fdditra to be 
used against the evil. But it might happen that the figures were 
all unlike one another, at any rate that those which were like 
the one in the column representing the question were so incon- 
gruous with it that even the inventive imagination and the 
greatest acuteness, sharpened by long practice, would prove 
unequal to the task of construing it into a reasonable answer to 
the question. In such cases the mpisikidy was obliged to have 
recourse to other operations, viz., the Sikldy tbkana and the 
Lofin-tsikidy , of which the first one is comparatively simple, 
while the latter one was very complicated. Each of these will 
now be briefly explained. 

B. The Sikldy of Unique Figures. — If it happens that any 
of the twelve principal columns {Tale — Vbhitra and Trano — 
Fahasivy) gets a figure which does not occur in any of the 
other columns, this is called Sikldy tbkana^ " a sikldy that stands 
alone " ; and consequently there are twelve possible kinds of 
this species of sikldy. Often many of the columns may happen 
to have unique figures ; in the diagram, for instance, Mctsina^ 
Asbrotdny, Trano, and Tale have each one occurring in no other 
column. But it would be remarkable (although it is possible) if 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 275 

all the twelve columns got figures, so that all the rules for sikldy 
tokana became applicable in the same sikldy. 

The twelve columns are enumerated in a certain order by the 
diviners. First comes Andriamdnitra (God), then the four at 
the top of the diagram, and finally the seven remaining ones 
below. In all the twelve classes of sikldy tokana the meaning 
depends on which of the sixteen figures it is that occurs as 
unique in the column in question. In many cases only a few of 
them have any special meaning attached to them, as will appear 
from the following rules regarding each class : — 

I. Unique Figures in the Column Andriamdnitra. — As only 
eight of the figures can be placed in this column without making 
the whole sikldy invalid, as previously mentioned, we only get 
eight varieties : — 

{a) If figure 9 occurs, it denotes that a thing can be done seven 

times without any hindrance. 
(6) If figure 7, you must throw away a cooking-pot full of rice, and 

are likely to get rich, 
(c) If figure 3, which is here called Maliatsangana, is taken {i.e., the 

beans composing it) and apphed to a reed (volotsaiigaiia) oi 

the same length as the man for whom the sikldy is worked, 

and this is thrown away, it will bring good luck. 
{d) If figure 14, it is an excellent charm against gun-shot {pdi- 

basy). 
{e) If figure 13, the beans composing it are taken and mixed with a 

herb called tambinbaim ; the sick person licks this six times, 

and it is then put on the top of his head. 
(/) If figure 12 (here called Heloka, guilt), the six beans of the figure 

are placed on as many rice-husks, which are then thrown away 

as cifadiira. 
(g) If figure I, a tree called andrarezina (a species of Trema) is to be 

the, faditra. 
(//) If figure 5, a white hen and a tree called fbtsinanalidry {" white 

one of the Creator") are to be the faditra. 

2. Unique Figures in Tale. — This is the only column in which 
all the figures have a special meaning ; but as they are much in 



276 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the same style as those already given under Andrlamdnitra, it 
would be tedious to give them in detail. Mr. Dahle observes 
here : " I do not intend the reader to practise the sikidy (this 
secret I shall of course keep for my own use !), but only wish to 
give him an idea as to what it is." 

3. Unique Figures in the other Columns. — In the other fourteen 
columns the number of figures having special meanings varies 
from one to fourteen out of the sixteen possibilities ; but space 
and time do not allow any further details, especially as their 
general character is shown by the examples given under Andrla- 
mdnitra. Most of them simply suggest an answer to a question, 
frequently also giving a remedy against the evil intimated by the 
answer. As a specimen, however, it may be mentioned that when 
the figure Sdka occurs in the column Trdno, it is considered as 
an excellent remedy for sterility if the five beans of the figure 
are mixed with milk, which is then to be put into fourteen frag- 
ments of pumpkin shell, and given to fourteen children, who are 
then to put some rice into a pot, from which the sterile woman 
eats it. Many of the rules in this kind of sikidy refer to sterility, 
sickness, or death. 

Under this section of Unique Figures, Mr. Dahle describes 
two other kinds of sikidy which are closely connected with the 
preceding ones, and called respectively (i) " Sikidy mutually 
corresponding^' and (2) " Sikidy providing a substitutory sacri- 
fice." 

It would, however, be tedious to go further into detail on this 
part of the subject ; but it may be remarked that in the original 
papers minute particulars are given of these various forms of 
sikidy and of the ways of working them. 

The same may be said of (C.) The Sikidy of Combined 
Figures, which shows how further combinations of the figures 
in various columns are obtained by the observance of strict 
rules in each case ; as many as eighty-one new columns con- 
tributing materials for as many new answers to questions. This 
sikidy, says Mr. Dahle, reminds him of the Danish proverb : 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 2// 

" Deceit is a science, said the Devil, when he gave lectures at 
Kiel." 

VI. Miscellaneous Sikidy. — In all the varieties of 
sikidy hitherto dealt with, the chief object in view has been to 
get an answer to questions, while it has been only a secondary 
and subordinate object to find out the remedies against evils, 
that is, if the answer informed us that some evil might be 
apprehended. But now we come to some sikidy practices, the 
chief object of which was to remedy the evils, or to procure a 
prophylactic against them. In other forms of this miscellaneous 
sikidy the object aimed at was to find times and directions 
when and where something was to be found, or was to take 
place. 

Rules are then given for the obtaining by means of the 
sikidy of charms for various purposes, especially (i) charms 
against gun-shot ; (2) trade charms ; (3) love charms ; (4) 
general charms ; (5) charms against vomiting ; (6) charms 
against dislike to food ; (7) charms against food having a ghost 
in it ; (8) and charms for bringing back a semi-departed spirit. 

I. Andron-tany (lit, "days of the land," but in the sense of 
the different quarters or directions of the compass, as expressed 
by the place in the house assigned to each day). What is really 
meant by this somewhat indefinite heading is, the art of finding 
out in what direction you are to seek for a thing that is lost, 
stolen, or strayed, &c. And this is denoted by the sikidy 
bringing out a certain figure in a certain column, showing that 
the thing wanted was to be looked for in a certain direction. 
For in the old native houses, which are always built with the 
length running north and south, and the single door and window 
on the west side, the names of the twelve months are given to 
twelve points of the compass, four at the corners and two on 
each side. For instance, if the sikidy brought out a figure which 
pointed to the south-east, the diviner did not call it so, but said 
it pointed to Asorotany, i.e., the constellation Cancer and also 
the name of a Malagasy month, which, in the arrangement just 



278 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

mentioned, has its place assigned to it at the south-eastern 
corner of the house. 

J. Andro fotsy (Ht, "white days," i.e., the days on which 
something expected or sought for was to happen). " Suppose,'* 
says Mr. Dahle, " I have lost a slave. It is of the utmost 
importance to me to know on what day I shall find him ; for 
then I do not trouble myself about searching for him before the 
day is come. Consequently I go to the diviner. He knows 
that certain combinations in certain columns denote the different 
days of the week ; and if, for instance, these columns prove to 
be Harena and Fahasivy, then he knows that what he asks 
about will occur on Wednesday {Alarobla). And so with the 
other days of the week." 

The Betsimisaraka have, besides the systematic kind of 
sikidy already described {Sikldy alanand), at least six other 
kinds. These are said to be much simpler than the ordinary 
kind of divination ; one, for instance, has only two columns or 
rows ; another kind can hardly be properly called sikidy at all. 
The procedure is simply the following : You take an indefinite 
number of grass stalks, and you then take out two and two 
until you have only one or two left. But you must have settled 
in your own mind at the outset whether one left shall mean 
good luck, and two bad luck, or vice versa. 

Another kind of sikidy, the A ti-pdko, is thus described : " A 
mode of recovering stolen property without detecting the thief; 
all the servants or employes are required to bring something, as 
a small bundle of grass, &c., and to put it into a general heap. 
This affords an opportunity to the thief of secretly returning the 
thing stolen." 

VII. We now come to the last division of our subject, viz., 
that of ViNTANA and San-ANDRO, or, as Mr. Dahle thinks this 
section might be termed, (i) Zodiacal and Lunary Vlntana, and 
(2) Planetary Vlntana. 

A. What, then, is vlntana ? If a man was ill, people often 
said, " Perhaps the vlntana of his son is too strong for him, or 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 279 

he has become subject to some misfortune," so they said, 
" Vintany izany angdha " (" Perhaps that is his vintana "). Or 
perhaps he was perpetually unsuccessful in business, and they 
said, " Olona rdtsy vintana izdny " (" That man must have a bad 
vintana "). Even immorality {e.g., an unmarried woman becom- 
ing pregnant) was excused by the remark, " Vintany hidny 
angdha izdny " (" Perhaps that is her vintana "), meaning that 
there was no helping it. 

Vintana seems like the fatum of the Greeks and Romans, 
an invisible power that made itself felt always and everywhere. 
The destiny of a man (his vintana) depends on what day he 
was born (partly also on what time of the day), or, rather, on 
what constellation of the Zodiac governed the day of his birth. 
It was therefore incumbent upon the mpamintana (those who 
dealt with the vintana), or the mpandndro (day-makers or 
declarers), who were also diviners, to inquire about the day or 
time of the day of a child's birth in order to make out its 
vintana, i.e., under what constellation it had been born, and 
what influence this would have on its destiny. 

As the names of the constellations of the Zodiac also 
became the names of the months, and of the days of the month 
(at least in the interior provinces), it is not clear what influence 
was attributed to the moon ; but that it was not considered to 
be without some influence appears from the following facts : — 
{a) Although the days of the months had seemingly borrowed 
their names from the constellations of the Zodiac, they really 
represented the 28 " Moon-stations " of the Arabs. In Flacourt's 
time (230 years ago) these were still retained on the south-east 
coastji but in the interior of Madagascar they have been super- 
seded by a somewhat simplified nomenclature, that is, by simply 
calling them first and second, or first, second, and third (or 
equivalent names), as the case may be, of each month, 

^ Here, for example, are the three Moon-stations in Alahamadj^ : (i) As- 
sharatani, (2) Al-butaina, (3) Az-zurayya, or names of the first three days in every 
month. 



28o 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 



Alahamady, Adaoro, and the rest^ (b) The Malagasy year 
was a lunar one (345 days). And (c) both the sun and the 
moon take their place as governors of the days of the week. 

Besides the division of the year into months, the Malagasy 
have from time immemorial known a hebdomadal unit, the 
week, the days of which have Arabic names. These days 
were thought to be under the special influence of the " Seven 
Planets " {i.e., what were by the ancients so called, viz., the Sun, 
the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn), as will be 
noticed presently under San-dndro, 

" It is easy to see," says Mr. Dahle, " that the whole life of a 
Malagasy would be thought to be under the influence of these 
heavenly bodies, and consequently at the mercy of those who 
are supposed to understand these often very intricate affairs. 
People are generally under the spell of those who know their 
destiny beforehand (while they do not know it themselves), who 
have the power of remedying the evils of it, and are able to tell 
them both what they ought to do, and when they should do it. 
When we remember the great influence that astrologers had over 
emperors, kings, and princes during the Middle Ages, and even 
far into the seventeenth century, we can easily understand what 
powers they must have had (and still have) in a country like 
Madagascar." 

^ The following are the Malagasy month-names, with their Arabic derivations 
and equivalent Zodiac signs : — 



Malagasy. 


Arabic. 


Zodiac Signs. 


I. Alahamady 


Al-hamalu 


= Aries. 


2. Adaoro 


Atz-tzauru 


= Taurus. 


3. Adizaoza 


Al-dsehauza'i] 


= Gemini. 


4. Asorotany 


As-saratanu 


= Cancer. 


5. Alahasaty 


Al-asadu 


=r. Leo major. 


6. Asombola 


As-sunbulu 


= Spica in Virgo^ which constellation 
it represents here. 


7. Adimizana 


Al-mizana 


= Libra. 


8. Alakarabo 


Al-aqrabu 


= Scorfio. 


9. Alakaosy 


Al-qausu 


= Sagittarius and arcus. % 


10. Adijady 


Al-dsehadiu 


= Cafricornus. 


II. Adalo 


Ad-dalvu 


— Aquarius. 


12. Alohotsy 


Al-hutu 


= Pisces. 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 28 1 

With regard to lucky and unlucky days, the following remarks 
may be made : — 

1. Although the different months were thought to have their 
peculiar character (according to the constellations they were 
named from) and their special piacula and offerings, &c., it does 
not appear that one month was considered more unlucky than 
another. The difference in this respect was a difference between 
the different days of the month ; which, it must be remembered, 
were named after the month-names also, eight having two, and 
four three, days respectively allotted to each, as ist, 2nd, and 
3rd of Alahamady ; ist and 2nd of Adaoro ; and so on, but 
each of the twenty-eight being also called by the names of the 
Manazil-ul-kamari^ or moon-stations. 

2. The characters of the days evidently did not depend so 
much on from what month-name it took, as on what moon- 
station it represented. Therefore we often find two successive 
days with the same name common to both, of which one was con- 
sidered good, the other bad ; e.g.^ the ist and 2nd of Asorotany 
were good, and were, and are still, favourite days for faviadihana 
(the ceremony of removing corpses from an old family grave to 
a new one) ; but the third day was considered bad. 

3. Some days were considered absolutely bad ; e.g.^ the 3rd 
of Asorotany, the 2nd of Asombola, the 2nd of Alakaosy, and 
the 1st of Adijady ; others were absolutely good, ^.^., the three 
days called Alahamady, and the 2nd of Alakarabo ; others again 
were considered indifferent, e.g., the ist and 2nd of Alahasaty. 

4. Some days again were not considered good in general, but 
still good enough for special purposes ; e.g., the ist of Alakarabo 
was excellent for a house-warming ; the 2nd of Adijady was 
good for marking out the ground for a new town ; and the 3rd 
of Adimizana was a lucky day to be born on, but a bad day for 
business. 

5. Some days had a special peculiarity of their own ; e.g., 
children born on the 2nd of Adalo generally became dumb ! so 
they said. 



282 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

6. Even the bad days were generally so only in the sense of 
having too strong a vintana. This was especially the reason 
why children born on these days were considered a very doubtful 
gift. Hence the infanticide in former times in the central pro- 
vinces of Madagascar, and still practised in most parts of the 
country where Christianity has not yet been taught Some- 
times, however, the diviner managed to remedy the evil in 
one way or another ; and occasionally nothing more was 
required than to give the child a name which intimated that 
the child would not do any harm, notwithstanding its strong 
vintana. Hence such names as Itsiman6sika,i Itsimandratra,^ 
Itsimaniho,3 Itsiman61aka,4 &c., all expressing in a general way 
that the child would be harmless. Those born on the 2nd of 
Adalo were often called Itsimarofy (" One who is not ill "), to 
avert the danger of dumbness. 

Not only were the twenty-eight days of the month called 
after the month-names (and also after the moon-stations), but, 
as already mentioned, a Hova house of the old style had also its 
sides and corners named after the same fashion, beginning with 
the first month-name, Alahamady, at the north-eastern corner, 
that is, the sacred part of the house, where the family charm 
was placed, and where prayers and invocations were offered. 
The inmates, on each day, had to take particular care not to 
go to the corner or side assigned to that particular day, or, at all 
events, not to place a sick person there, for, by so doing, they 
would provoke the spirit of that region. 

Mr. Dahle says that the vintana is really the key to the whole 
system of idolatry in Madagascar, and to everything connected 
with it, at least so far as it got any real hold on the people ; 
while the sikldy practice is also closely mixed up v\^ith it, although 
many points still need further investigation. 

B. The last division of the subject, that of San-andro or 
Planetary Vintana, must be discussed very briefly. The word 

^ One who does not push, ^ One who does not hurt. 

3 One who does not elbow. ^ One who does not w^eaken. 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 



283 



san-dndro^ in its use among the Malagasy, means the peculiarities 
or character of the days of the week as depending on the Seven 
Planets, considered as governors of these days. The following 
is a list of the days of the Malagasy week, together with their 
respective san-dndro names, and their special numbers and 
characters : — 



English 


Malagasy 


Saii-andiv 


Arabic 


Name. 


Name. 


Name. 


Origin. 


Sunday 


Alahady ^ 


Samosy 


Shams 


Mondaj^ 


Alatsinainy 


Alakamary 


Al-gamar 


Tuesday 


Talata 


Mariky 


Marrik 


Wednesday 


Alarobia 


Motarita 


Utarit 


Thursday 


Alakamisy 


Mosataro 


Mushtari 


Friday 


Zoma 


Zohara 


Zahro 


Saturday 


Asabotsy 


Johady 


Zahal 



^caning. 


Cliaractcr. 


Number. 


Sun 


good 


I 


Moon 


bad 


5 


Mars 


good 


2 


Mercury 


good 


6 


Jupiter 


bad 


3 


Venus 


bad 


7 


Saturn 


neutral 


4 



The fourth column of the above list gives the Arabic names 
of the Seven Planets, from which the san-dndi'o names of the 
week-days were clearly derived. 

Any one who has the slightest knowledge of Latin will see 
immediately that what were in Malagasy the extraordinary 
day-names, only used in san-dndro, were in Latin the ordinary 
day-names {Dies Soils, Lunce, Martls, &c.) ; and their retention 
in part amongst modern European nations, with changes, as 
among ourselves, for Teutonic god-names, for some days, is 
well known. The explanation of this rather curious fact, no 
doubt, is that the astrology of Babylonia spread both to Arabia 
and from thence to Madagascar, and also to Europe ; and that, 
according to this astrology, the planets in question, and the 
gods identified with them, held the sway over the days of the 
week ; and it depended on the supposed nature of each planet 
whether the day under its sway should be considered a lucky or 
an unlucky one. Why such differences were supposed to result 

^ Mr. Dahle had previously shown (in Antananarivo Annual, Vol. I., pp. 205, 
206) that these native names for the days of the week are of purely Arabic origin, 
the first five names being simply numerals from one to five, the first four being 
cardinals used as ordinals, and the fifth an ordinal (" One day," " Two day," &c.) ; 
the sixth is from DscJinma, " Congregation Day," the Sabbath of the Moham- 
medans ; while the seventh is simply the Hebrew " Sabbath," slightly altered in 
spelling and termination. 



284 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

from the different planets it is difficult to say '; but the notion of 
lucky and unlucky days has been tenaciously held by the 
common people in the different countries of Europe, and still 
retains its hold in many places. 

It will be observed that the last column of the above list 
gives a certain number connected with each day-name, and that 
these do not follow the order in which the days occur in the week, 
-except in the case of the first. These numbers have, however, 
great importance in the practical part of san-andro, as will be seen. 
I. The San-andro of the Dead, or Direct San-dndro. — This had 
reference, apparently, exclusively to burials ; if a corpse was to 
be buried, it would probably be done on a " good " day (Sunday, 
Tuesday, or Wednesday) ; but the proceedings depended greatly 
on the numbers characteristic of the san-dndro of that day. If, 
for instance, it was on Wednesday, the special number of which 
is 6, they had to stop six times with the bier on the way to the 
grave, throw down a stone at each stopping-place, and carry the 
corpse six times round the grave before they buried it. And so, 
mutatis mutandis, with the other days, according to their special 
numbers. 

2. The San-dndro of the Living, or the San-dndro which was 
counted " Backwaj^dsT — This appears to have had reference only 
to sacrifices ; in offering these, the invocations made by the 
priest referred, not to the san-dndro of the day the offering was 
made, but to that of " the day before yesterday," in other words, 
two days backward. Offerings could only be brought on the three 
" good " days ; but the sikidy could be performed on any day. 

3. The Character of the Seven Days of the Week in relation to 
Evils and the Foretelling of Evils, — The following rules were 
given to Mr. Dahle by his native " professor " ; — 

1. Sunday was the proper day for everything white: 

white-haired people, white stones, &c. 

2. Monday : the day for everything green and blackish : 

grass, forests, greenish birds, people with blackish 
skin, 8z:c. 



DIVINATION AMONG THE MALAGASY. 285 

3. Tuesday: the day of people who have many scars 

and are marked from small-pox. 

4. Wednesday : the day of women and everything female 

5. Thursday : the day of slaves. 

6. Friday : the day of nobles and everything red (red or 

scarlet clothes, &c.), characteristic of the higher 
nobility. 

7. Saturday : the day of young people and everything^ 

young. 

So if a man suffering from some evil came to a diviner on 
a Sunday, he would be told that his complaint had been caused 
by some white stone ; or by drinking milk, in which there were 
some ghosts, or that he had been bewitched by some white-haired 
woman ; or, at any rate, that he was in danger of some such 
mishap, and had better look out carefully. If he came on Thurs- 
day, his trouble was almost sure to be attributed to some slave 
or he was warned to beware of his slaves, lest they should 
murder or bewitch him. And so on, for the other days, accord- 
ing to the nature of the day. 

4. Foretelling of the Tdsik' andro, i.e., the day on which one 
may be in special danger of getting ill through the influence of 
the vintana. — This division of the san-andro was a peculiar com- 
pound of vintana and sikldy subjected to certain rules, by which,, 
beginning with Tuesday, different columns in the sikldy point to 
the different days of the week ; e.g., if a combination of the two 
columns Trano and Lalana in the sikldy erected gives a figure 
which is like Tale (which represents the man in question), he is 
in danger of being taken ill on Tuesday. If the figures in 
Ldla?za and Mpdnontdny are like Tale, Wednesday is the unlucky 
day for him ; and so on with other combinations. 

As Mr. Dahle says, the sikldy and vintana were once the 
most tremendous powers in Madagascar ; let us thank God 
that their spell is broken, and their influence passing away. 



CHAPTER XIV, 
FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY.^ 

Two great divisions of the people — Idea of impurity in connection with death — 
A revolting custom — Funeral feasts — Taiikarana — Their carved coffins — 
Analogies to those of Philippine Islanders — Betsimisaraka — Ranomena — 
Tambahoaka, Taimoro, and Tanosy — The Fanano — Tandroy and Mahafaly 
— Sakalava — The Zomba or sacred house — Vazimba — Behisotra and Tan- 
drona — Sihanaka — Bezanozano — Tanala — Vorimo — Ikongo — Hova — 
Betsileo — Bara — Funeral of Radama I. — Enormous wealth put in tomb — 
Silver coffin. 

FUNERAL rites and ceremonies are not the same among 
all the different races inhabiting Madagascar. Regarded 
from this point of view, the Malagasy may be divided into two 
groups : first, those whose cemeteries are hidden in the depths 
of the forests, or in the midst of rocks, in solitary places, which 
are held in great awe ; ^ and secondly, those who inter their 
relatives by the roadside, and often in the midst of their 
dwellings.3 

The majority of these place the dead in the hollowed-out 
trunk of a tree, which they cover with a lid in the shape of a 
pent, or rounded roof; the Hova, however, simply wrap the 
corpse in laniba^ more or less numerous according to the 
wealth of the family ; and it appears that the Bara content 

'^ Translated from an article by M, A. Grandidier in the Revue d' Ethnographic. 
Paris, 1886, pp. 213-232. 

= These are, the Betsimisaraka and other tribes on the east (with the exception 
of the Tambahoaka, the Taimoro and the Tanosy, who have a considerable Arab 
admixture), and the Tandroy, the Mahafaly, the Sakalava, the Tankarana, and 
the Bara. 

3 These are the Sihanaka, the Taimoro, the Tambahoaka, the Tanosy, and 
-especially the Hova and the Betsileo. 

286 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 28/ 

themselves with placing the corpse perfectly naked upon the 
ground. Besides this, however, the Malagasy always im- 
mediately proceed with the toilet of the deceased, the nearest 
relatives of the same sex washing the corpse, dressing its hair 
and wrapping it in new cloths. 

The two principal eastern tribes, the Betsimisaraka and 
the Tanala, as well as the Tankarana, the Tankoala, and 
certain tribes of the Bara, do not bury the coffin ; they place 
it either simply on the ground, or on a little framework sur- 
rounded by a palisade and covered with a pent roof, or in a 
fissure of rock ; but all the others, that is to say, the greater 
part of the inhabitants of the island, place it in the ground and 
cover it with a heap of stones of rectangular shape. The head 
of the corpse is turned towards the east,^ and they enclose in 
the tomb various articles, such as earthen vessels, pots of 
incense, cloths, &c. 

All the Malagasy hold the notion of impurity in connection 
with a corpse. No funeral procession can pass near a sovereign, 
or even near to his dwelling or the sacred stones ; those who 
have followed it are obliged to purify themselves, and in those 
districts where the tombs are placed far from dwellings, every 
person found in a cemetery is considered as a sorcerer and is 
punished with death. It is further worthy of notice that the 
Malagasy have a great fear of, but also a profound respect for, 
the dead. They think it of the first importance that they should 
be buried in the ancestral cemetery or tomb ; and not only the 
Hova, but the greater portion, if not all, of the native tribes 
often bring from great distances the bones of their relatives 
so that they may be deposited in their native soil. When they 
cannot recover the body of a deceased relative, they inter in its 
stead his pillow and sleeping mat, and in any case they erect 
a funeral monument in commemoration of the departed, con- 

^ I have, however, been told that the Sihanaka turn the head of the coffin 
towards the north, and the Hova place in their graves the corpses of grand- 
parents at right angles to those of their descendants. 



288 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

sisting of a slab of stone, a timber post or other structure. 
A vow to the dead, to the lolo^ as the coast people term them, 
is sacred. 

There is a custom, as repugnant as it is extraordinary, which 
is prevalent almost everywhere except among the Hova, by 
which the corpse is not interred immediately after death ; 
the relatives wait until the body is decomposed, and often 
collect the putrid liquid which flows out, setting it aside. 
It is needless to say that in such circumstances the " waking " 
of the corpse is far from agreeable, and it is only by drinking 
neat rum, by burning incense and suet and even hides, that 
the parents and friends are able to bear the nauseous odours 
which poison the air. During all this time many of the native 
tribes offer food and drink to the corpse. This custom is 
essentially Malagasy, for it is not practised by the Hova, who 
are of Malay origin, nor by the families of the chiefs of the 
east coast tribes, who are descended from Arabs or Europeans ; 
it seems to have for its object to prevent interring with the 
bones the corruptible matter which causes decomposition of 
the flesh, and which they consider impure. 

Funerals are also all over Madagascar accompanied by real 
feasts, at least in all families who are rich or in easy circum- 
stances. They kill oxen, often in considerable numbers, they 
drink rum to excess, they eat plenty of rice and meat, they 
fire off muskets, the whole being interspersed with doleful 
songs and weeping. The relatives never eat the flesh of the 
oxen killed on the occasion of the death of one of their own 
family. Mourning is always marked, either by unbraided and 
dishevelled hair, or at the decease of sovereigns, by the head 
being shaved, coarse and dirty garments only being worn, the 
people neither washing nor combing their hair, nor allowing 
themselves to look in a mirror, should they happen to possess 
one. 

Such are, in brief, the principal funeral customs of the 
Malagasy. We shall now proceed to point out, in the briefest 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 289 

possible manner, the differences which exist between the 
usages of the different tribes, beginning with those of the 
north and the east. It is nevertheless well to remark that 
among certain of them, especially those whose Christianity 
has commenced to exert its happy influence, these old customs 
are beginning to disappear. 

The Tankdrana. — The Tankarana are accustomed to wrap 
the dead either in an ox-hide, or in split bamboos, or in 
rabannas {rofia cloth), which they tie round with cords of rofia 
fibre, and leave them exposed for a long time under a shed, 
where they do not cease to burn various resins in little clay 
vessels. Beginning on the third day, they frequently tighten 
j the cords, until there is hardly anything left but the bones, 
which they afterwards place in a hollowed tree trunk, generally 
of rather small dimensions. This coffin, closed with a lid 
formed like a roof, is then carried to a solitary spot, usually 
an uninhabited island, where it is put in a hollow of the 
rocks, or simply on the ground ; a supply of provisions is 
ii placed near the deceased. The coffins are renewed when they 
I! become decayed from age. The following description has been 
1 given of one of these coflfins, which was sent to the Natural 
\ History Museum, in Paris, in 1886, by a (French) naval ofHcer, 
I, M. P. Germinet, commander of the Romanche, and which comes 
I from the little rocky islet called Nosy Loapasana, whose name 
signifies " hollowed out by tombs." ^ 

This coffin, cut out of a tree trunk, measures 5 feet long by 
8|- in. broad ; the cavity which has been hollowed out of it is 
4 feet long by 5 in. to 6 in. wide. At the place for the head, two 
recesses increase the width to 6J inches. The lid, in form like 
a roof, is 5 ft. 4J in. long by 9 in. broad ; it is ornamented by 
a zigzag pattern cut in relief, which follows the edges, the ridge, 
and the hips (so to speak) of the roof-like cover ; also by a 
transverse strip of herring-bone ornament at about the middle 

' This islet is situated at the head of Diego Suarez Bay ; the maps show it 
under the name of He du Sepulchre. 

20 



290 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

of the length and meeting at the ridge, and with four small 
circles with cross lines cut in them. The lid fits into a rebate 
formed all round the hollow of the coffin, and which forms a 
projection of a little more than f inch. The general form of 
the coffin is in all respects similar to that of the wooden sarco- 
phagi which M. Alfred Marche has discovered in the burial 
caves of Marinduque and of other small islands near Luzon 
in the Philippine Archipelago. 

Inside the coffin, the skeleton, which is that of a young 
person of twelve or fourteen years of age, is very nearly in exact 
position, the head being seen at one end, and at the other the 
bones of the legs and feet. The rest of the body, evidently 
compressed transversely and mouldering in its wrappings, shows 
some of the bones more or less displaced in the midst of the 
remains of rofia and other cloths, which are still tightly bound 
by rofia cords. At the foot of the corpse are three small vessels 
of baked clay mounted on a stand, which must have served for 
the burning of perfumes during the ceremonies preceding the 
interment.! 

* It is not without interest to notice here that this example, buried in a coffin 
resembhng the ancient sarcophagi used by certain tribes of the Philippines, 
presents the exact characteristics of cranium common to the Indonesians. M. 
Hamy, who has taken the principal measurements, has stated, indeed, that the 
cranium is very plainly brachycephalic (diam. ant. post, 168 millim., d. transv. 
max., 143 ; ind. ceph., 85-1). 

This exaggerated brachycephalic character cannot, in his opinion, be attributed, 
except in a very small degree, to the age of the example, the cephalic index 
never rising, among the young negroes of Africa, above 78. This brachy- 
cephalism is, besides, in harmony with the existence of a large occipito-parietal 
plate, such as one meets so frequently in crania from the Indian Archipelago. 
The vertical diameter is, at the same time, sensibly inferior tvT the transverse, a 
circumstance which is not usual among true negroes. 

Here are, in addition, the principal measurements given by M. Hamy as to 
the cranium from the tomb at Nosy Loapasana : Circ. horiz. 496 millim. ; diam, 
ant. post. 168 ; d. transv. max. 143 ; d. basil, brcgm. 138 ; ind. ceph. 85-1 ; 82-1 ; 
96'5 ; front min. no millim. ; max. 120 ; biorb. ext. 102 ; bizygom. 124 ; height 
of face, 76 ; breadth of orbit, 37 ; height 36 ; length of nose, 46 ; breadth, 26. 

Three adult skulls, collected at the same time and at the same place by M. 
Germinet, give the following means of the respective dimensions : Circ. horiz. 
504 mm. ; diam. ant. post, 176 ; d. transv. max. 141 ; d. basil, brcgm. 136 ; ind. 
ceph. 8o'i ; 77*2 ; 96'4 ; front, min. 100 ; max. 118 ; biorb. ext. 108 ; bizyg. 132 
height of face, 90 ; orbit, breadth, 39 ; height, 36 ; nose, length, 54 ; breadth, 27. 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 29 1 

Among the chiefs of the Tankarana, the ceremonial is 
somewhat different. The corpse is exposed on a stage of 
bamboo hurdles, sheltered by a roof, and covered over with 
aromatic herbs and hot sand, which the attendants constantly 
renew until complete mummification is effected. It is at length 
deposited in a coffin which is anointed with a mixture of 
grease, rum, and salt. The putrid liquid which exudes during 
the operation just described is received in vessels placed under 
the stage, and the slaves of the deceased chief anoint their 
bodies with it from time to time. 

The Betsimisaraka. — The Betsimisaraka keep their dead in 
their houses for a long time, and the products of decomposition 
are received in a vessel to be buried at a distance, in a place 
where the relatives erect a stone, to which they afterwards come 
frequently to offer prayers. A lamp burns night and day at 
the head of the corpse, and during all the time of its being 
exposed to view, the widow ought no more to leave the funeral 
couch than she would do if her husband were still living. The 
coffins, which are formed of a hoUowed-out tree trunk with a 
roof-shaped lid, are placed in a dense wood,i and laid on the 
ground in regular order at a little distance one from the other, 
^ as shown opposite. At the head they generally place various 
articles which belonged to the deceased, especially a bottle of 
rum, a very natural offering in a country where drunkenness 
is a universal vice. Certain families, however, place their coffins 
higher up, on a little stage, and construct a shed to protect them 
from the rain and the sun ; in these cases every corpse has its 
separate house. Others place the corpse in the hollowed-out 
trunk of a tree, resembling a barrel, of which both ends are 
closed by circular pieces of wood. 

The customs followed at the decease of a chief are alto- 
gether different, for the interment follows immediately and 

^ In some places, Anonibfe, for instance, the coffins (which are exactly the 
shape of large dog-kennels, except that the two sides of the roof do not project) 
are placed, sometimes thirty or forty together, under the trees by the sea-side. 



292 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

by night, without any notice being given to the people of the 
event ; the news of the misfortune which has happened to the 
tribe is not, in fact, announced until much later. It is well to 
remark here that the Betsimisaraka chiefs are of foreign ex- 
traction. 

The Ranomena. — Among the Ranomena, who at present 
inhabit the district between Fanantara and Marohita, and are 
descended from the inhabitants of that part of the east coast 
where, in ancient times, Arabs landed under the leadership of 
Raminia, it is customary to place the corpses on the roadside. 
A hole is formed to receive the liquids coming from the de- 
composition of the body, and the place is marked by means of 
a piece of rock, to which the children of the deceased come to 
offer their prayers. The cemeteries are relegated to the depths 
of the woods, and no one goes there except at the time of 
interment. 

The Tdmbahbaka, Tamtbro and Tanbsy. — The Roandriana, 
or chiefs of the Tambahoaka, the Taimoro and the Tanosy, 
who are of Arab origin, are interred at night, one or two days 
after death. During the lying-in-state, which takes place in 
the same chamber in which the person died, reddish-brown 
lamba or cloths are hung up, and a lamp is kept burning at the 
head of the corpse until it is removed for burial ; and, on the 
first day, food is placed at the side of the bed or bier. The 
relatives fasten to the arms of the deceased small strips of paper 
covered with cabalistic signs and Arabic words. During all this 
time the news of the event is kept secret outside the royal 
village, and it is only after a month has elapsed that a white flag 
is hoisted at the summit of the house where the corpse has lain, 
informing the people generally of the fact. After this the 
funeral ceremonies are performed with great pomp. White is 
the colour for mourning in (many parts of) Madagascar, as in 
the far East. 

The tombs of these Roandriana, which are called Ibnaka, 
exactly the same word as that applied to the royal residences, 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 293 

are formed, among the Tanosy, of two slabs of stone, one at 
the head, the other, not so high as the first, at the foot of the 
tomb. A circular palisading surrounds each tomb, and this is 
kept in repair by the family of the Zafindrasara, who alone are 
allowed to enter it. The bodies of the chiefs are not placed in 
a coffin, but simply wrapped in a Imnba. In former times the 
Taimoro chiefs were interred in a house situated in the village, 
but this custom has been abandoned. 

The commonalty, the vohiti'a or free people, are interred in a 
coffin which is either on the very edge of the roads (in Antai- 
moro), or in the midst of the woods (in Antanosy). The tombs, 
which the people call amonoka, consist of a trench lined inside 
with stones and closed by a slab of stone placed on the ground, 
with a white flag floating from a pole ; and these are not 
regarded with the same dread as they are among the other 
coast peoples. Funerals take place, as in the case of the chiefs, 
very shortly after death. When a woman has become disgraced 
among her family through violating some of the requirements 
of caste, she is placed at the feet of her relatives, transversely, 
instead of by their side, according to the usual custom. The 
men are placed on the bier on the right side, the women on the 
left side, but the head is always turned towards the east. The 
general belief is that the liquids produced by the dissolution of 
the body give birth, at least in the case of the chiefs, to a 
colossal sea-serpent, which they term Fananina or Fandno^ 

^ There seems a remarkable parallel to this Malagasy belief in the trans- 
migration of the souls of chiefs into some animal in the practice of the Samoans, 
as thus described by the Rev. Dr. Turner : " The unhuried occasioned great 
concern. . . . Nor were the Samoans, hke the ancient Romans, satisfied with a 
mere tumulus inanis at which to observe the usual solemnities ; they thought 
it was possible to obtain the soul of the departed in some tangible transmigrated 
form. On the beach, near where a person had been drowned, and whose body 
was supposed to have become a porpoise, or on the battlefield, where another 
fell, might have been seen, sitting in silence, a group of five or six, and one a few 
yards before them with a sheet of native cloth spread out on the ground in front 
of him. Addressing some god of the family, he said, * Oh, be kind to us ; let us 
obtain without difficulty the spirit of the young man ! ' The first thing that 
happened to light upon the sheet was supposed to be the spirit. If nothing 
came, it was supposed that the spirit had some ill-will to the person praying. 



294 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The Tanosy who, not being willing to accept the Hova yoke, 
quitted the neighbourhood of Fort Dauphin and went to settle 
in the upper regions of the Onilahy or St. Augustine river 
(S.W.), are still accustomed to bring their dead to the land 
where they formerly lived. Having waited until the bones have 
become divested of the flesh, they follow the custom of the 
Sakalava and Mahafaly tribes, and place the coffins under a 
heap of stones arranged in an oblong form. Some families 
erect near the villages, in remembrance of their dead, wooden 
posts or pillars bearing on the top a human figure, or one of a 
bird, roughly carved, and on the different sides patterns more 
or less regular, and figures of animals, such as oxen, birds, and 
especially crocodiles.^ A scrap of white cloth flutters from the 
end of this post, to which are also fastened the skulls and horns 
of the oxen killed at the time of the funeral. 

The Tandrby and Mahafaly. — The Tandroy and the Maha 
faly wrap the dead in several Idmba, and carry them to the 
cemetery on the day following the decease in a kind of hand- 
barrow or bed formed of a framework of wood with strips 
of leather interwoven. The corpse, laid upon the ground, is 
covered over with earth, and over it is constructed an oblong 
heap of stones. The rich people have coffins. 

The Sakalava. — The Sakalava bring the dead out of their 
house immediately after decease, and place them, wrapped 
in many lainba (even, not odd, in number), upon a stage about 
six feet high called talatala, the head being turned towards the 

That person after a time retired, and another stepped forward, addressed some 
other god, and waited the result. By and by something came ; grasshopper, 
butterfly, ant, or whatever else it might be, it was carefully wrapped up, taken 
to the family, the friends assembled, and the bundle was buried with all 
ceremony, as if it contained the real spirit of the departed " (Samoa a Hundred 
Years Ago and Long Before, p. 150). — ^J. S. 

* One may compare the figure of the cover of a coffin from Marinduque 
(Philippine Islands), by which it appears that, in the further East, as in Mada- 
gascar, crocodiles are carved on funeral memorials. This coffin lid, as well as 
the two coffins which are previously described, form part of the collections 
brought by M. Alfred Marche to the Museum of Ethnography at the Trocadero 
(Paris). 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 295 

east, and a piece of cloth being thrown over the corpse, on 
which are placed articles which must be deposited in the bier. 
A fire is lighted under the foot of the corpse, and incense 
is burnt to overcome the effluvia. The women keep at the 
north-east side of the stage, and the men at the south and 
south-east. It is customary for the friends of the deceased 
to bring small presents on these occasions. On their arrival 
the women squat down opposite the family, which is gloomily 
silent ; then, without speaking, they begin to weep and sob, 
and all the females present join them in this manifestation of 
their sorrow. Silence prevails after some minutes until the 
arrival of a fresh party of visitors. These tdlatdla are after- 
wards destroyed, and the pieces are thrown into water in an 
uninhabited place. The corpse is carried to the burial-place 
upon a kibdny, or kind of bier 'or hand-barrow, and is then put, 
lying on its back, in a coffin formed of the hollowed-out trunk 
of a tree, which is supported on four feet cut out of the wood, 
and the bottom of which is pierced with an opening so as to 
allow the putrid matter to flow away. This coffin is completely 
covered with another tree trunk, which is a little larger and 
also hollowed out. The coffin is laid in a trench with various 
objects belonging to the deceased, such as bowls, plates, boxes, 
&c., and is covered up with earth. An oblong-shaped heap 
of stones, of which the length runs east and west, shows the 
place occupied by the tomb. At the head a small piece of 
white cloth is fastened to a pole like a flag. There are some 
families, especially that of the Voronioka, who do not inter 
their dead in a coffin ; they simply wrap them in a large mat 
and cover them up with stones. The house of the deceased is 
abandoned and allowed to go to ruin ; no person dares to touch 
it under any pretence whatever ; and any one who, even without 
knowing it, should happen to use for any purpose the materials 
of such a house, would be liable to severe punishment, some- 
times even to death itself 

Just before death the Sakalava are accustomed to make public 



296 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

confession before their family of the crimes and principal il 
deeds which they have committed during their life. 1 

In order to offer their prayers to the lolo (spirits) of their 
relatives, the Sakalava do not go to the burial-place, which they 
hold in great dread, but to the deceased's house, which has been 
allowed to fall into ruin. 

For princes, the ceremonies are altogether different. The 
corpse, enclosed in an ox-hide, remains exposed for two months, 
either in an encampment made for the purpose, under a tent, 
where incense is burnt night and day, or, in the case of a king, 
in the midst of a forest, under the care of a particular family. 
Then it is carried, with great ceremony and festivities, to a royal 
cemetery, which, in the south-west, is called Mahdbo (lit., " that 
which elevates "), and in the north-west Zbmbavola (lit., " silver 
shrine "). But previously, if the body is that of a deceased king, 
the royal relics ox jlny ^ are brought out ; these consist of one of 
the vertebrae of the neck, a nail, and a lock of hair, and which, 
placed in the hollow of a molar tooth of a crocodile,^ are kept 
with religious care by his successor, together with those of the 
ancient kings, in a special house, which is held to be sacred. 

The name which the kings bear during their life may no 
longer be pronounced after their death ; another is substituted 
for it, often of immoderate length, for it always commences with 
the word Andrlana (lord) and finishes with the word arivo (thou- 
sand), with one or several other words placed between them. 
Thus Raboky, who reigned at Baly, at no very long time past, 
is never named by his old subjects as other than Andrianaha- 
tantiarivo, or " The lord who can bear a thousand calamities " ; 
Tsimanompo, the last Bara king of the district of Isantsa, is now 
mentioned only under his surname of Andriant6mponarivo, or 

^ This word finy is really the Arabic word djinu, which signifies, as is well 
known, a demon or invisible spirit, having supernatural power. 

^ The tooth of the crocodile intended to receive ih.Q finy must be taken from a 
living animal ; they choose one of the largest size, and bind it firmly with strong 
cords ; then they insert between its jaws, at the desii-ed place, a burning potato, 
and after a quarter of an hour, the coveted tooth can easily be extracted. The 
animal is then set free. 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 297 

" The lord who is master of a thousand." When a king bears a 
name having the meaning of something in common use, or 
approaching that of some word in the vernacular, this word must 
no longer be pronounced by any of the inhabitants of the 
country. Thus, after the death of Vinany, king of Menabe, 
whose name recalls a very commonly used word all over Mada- 
gascar, vilctny^ which means a cooking-pot, the Antimena no 
longer calls this indispensable article of household use by any 
other name than by one made for the occasion, viz., fiketrdhana 
(lit, " the boiling utensil "). Any one allowing himself to pro- 
nounce the former name of a deceased king would be considered 
as a sorcerer and punished as such, that is to say, by being put 
to death. 

The Vazhnba. — The Vazimba, who inhabit Menabe on the 
banks of the Manambolo, seem to be the last relics of the 
aborigines of the island ; their funeral rites therefore possess a 
very special interest. 

After having washed the corpse and clothed it in its finest 
garments, they place it in a squatting posture upon a kibany (a 
bed or couch), as if it were still living ; and the relatives or 
friends attend it night and day, talking to it, putting into its 
hand a spoon, full of rice or any other kind of food, &c. 
Formerly the liquids produced by the decomposition of the flesh 
were taken to a special place, which was sprinkled with the 
blood of an ox in order to nourish thcfandnina or snake, which 
they believe to be produced from these putrid liquids. Since the 
conquest of the country by the Sakalava king Lahifotsy, these 
customs have been to some extent abandoned, and as soon as 
the effluvium becomes too offensive, the corpse is buried. But, 
at the end of about a year, they take it out of the ground and 
wash the bones, which are placed in a new coffin, and are then 
buried for good and all. 

The Behisotra and Tandrona or Tdnkodla.^ — The two tribes 

^ Behisotra is probably a mistake for Bemihisatra. The Tandrona live in the 
north-central part of the island in the neighbourhood of Mandritsara, where they 



298 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

who inhabit the north-west coast between Pasandava Bay and 
the Bay of Bembatoka have the same funeral customs as the 
Tankarana. So we learn from a letter recently written by M. 
Vian, a naval surgeon, who was in the Bay of Mahajamba, and 
had the opportunity of visiting one of their cemeteries, which is 
a natural cave, in which he found several coffins about 4 feet 
long by I foot 2 inches wide. It is certain that the Sakalava 
chiefs who have settled in the north-west and the north of 
Madagascar have not exerted on the habits of the inhabitants 
of that part of the island (Ankoala and Ankarana) so great an 
influence as they have in the west (Fiherenana, Menab6 and 
Ambongo). 

The Sihdnaka. — The Sihanaka take secretly away, far from 
their villages, those who are ill, and of whose recovery they are 
hopeless, and place them in a solitary spot, where no one goes 
but the person appointed to attend them. After death, the 
corpse is brought into the house, where it lies in state for a 
certain time, according to the wealth of the deceased and the 
number of oxen killed. After these ceremonies, the house is 
abandoned, and the corpse is interred. The family erect to 
the memory of the deceased a tall pole forked at the summit, 
like a pair of ox-horns. This is called jlro^ and is placed on 
the side of a road near the place of interment. 

The Bezanozano. — The burial monuments of the Bezanozano 
are composed of a single stone or slab erected at the head and 
to the east of the trench where the coffin is deposited, and of 
other stones, to which are fixed, on stakes, the skulls of the oxen 
killed during the funeral ceremonies. Sometimes tin boxes or 
mats which belonged to the deceased are also placed on these 
stones. 

The Tanala^ — The free Tanala, called also Hova, do not inter 

first settled after leaving their original Sakalava home in Menabe. Both the 
Bemihisatra and the Tandrona are merely branches or sub-tribes of the Sakalava, 
the Tandrona having a certain amount of African blood in them. Another 
important branch of the Sakalava in this part of the island is the Bemazava. — J. S. 
^ The word Tanala is merely a descriptive term, there being no one tribe 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 299 

their dead until they have lain in state for a month or so. For 
three days they leave the corpse uncovered, but after this they 
wrap it in red cloths {Jamba) and place it in a coffin, which they 
do not carry to the cemetery until the completion of the month. 
The liquid products of decomposition flow upon the earthen 
floor of the house and are simply covered over with earth. 
During all the time of the lying-in-state, the surviving partner 
(husband or wife) sleeps in the house as if his or her spouse 
was still living. The custom obtains also among the Betsi- 
misaraka, the Tanosy, and other tribes. The coffin is deposited 
in a solitary place in the forest, and is surrounded by a 
palisade of tree trunks which hide its cover. 

The Andflana or chiefs, whose ancestors are of foreign 
(Arab) extraction, are, on the contrary, interred on the very 
day of their death. The coffin, with a lid in the shape of a 
roof, and on which is fixed a pair of horns, is carried into the 
dense forest and placed under a kind of shed. An image, sus- 
pended in a corner of the house where the death took place, 
receives for six weeks all the signs of grief and marks of regret 
from the people, after which it is thrown into the nearest river 
with great ceremony. The royal cemetery is visited from time 
to time in order to renew the coffins when they fall into decay, 
and also to change the lamba in which the bones are enveloped. 

The Vorimo. — The Vorimo, who live at some distance from 
the sea between the rivers Mangoro and Mahas6ra, keep the 
dead in their houses for two or three weeks, and with all their 
weeping, they feast, eating and drinking to excess. The corpse, 
wrapped in a number of lamba and mats, is then taken to the 
tomb, which is situated in a solitary place in the forest, and is 
composed of a little enclosure of stones, in a rectangular form,, 
of which the interior is entirely filled with earth. 

In order to offer prayers to their departed relatives, the 

known by that name. It signifies forest-dwellers, and includes several different 
tribes. The inhabitants of the south-east-central parts of Madagascar are doubt- 
less meant here, as these are often specially though erroneously referred to by 
Europeans as the Tanala. — J. 8, 



300 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Vorimo, like the Tanala, prepare near their villages a kind 
of altar, formed of three or four large stones, on which they 
place their offerings of rice and other things. 

Where a family has been unable to recover the corpse of one 
of its members, or cannot bring it to its ancestral home, they 
erect to its memory a slab or pillar of stone, which is called 
Tsdngambdto, (lit., " standing stone "). They also place upright 
stones at the spots where, during the funeral ceremonies, the 
corpse had been temporarily deposited. 

The Ikbngo.^ — The Ikongo do not erect any tombs; they 
inter their dead in the forest, and are content with marking the 
place by the help of a notch cut in the nearest tree. Their 
funerals are unaccompanied with cries or weeping. 

The Hova. — The graves of the Hova differ in a very marked 
way from those of which we have spoken. They are, in fact, 
family caves or vaults, large subterranean chambers, placed 
east and west, of which the soil forms the base, and whose sides 
consist of large slabs of stone, closed over at the top by an 
enormous one. They are entered by a doorway cut out of the 
stone wall on the west side of the tomb. The corpses are 
deposited, wrapped up in Idmba and mats, some upon the 
ground, and others upon stone shelves which are fixed hori- 
zontally all round (or rather on the three sides of) the mortuary 
chamber. Those of the head of the family and of his wife are 
placed along the wall opposite the entrance, /.^., on the east 
side ; while those of his family are laid on the sides to the north 
and south. Over the cave, the top of which is always raised a 
little above the surface of the ground, there is a structure, almost 
square in shape, formed of four walls of stones laid without 
mortar, the interior of which is filled with earth, while the top 
is often covered with small pieces of quartz, which are some- 
times fetched from a distance. 



The inhabitants living in 
its neighbourhood are called Sandrabe (?), and are merely a sub-tribe of what 
Europeans call the Tanala. — J. S. 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 301 

The building of their tombs is considered by the Hova as 
a very important undertaking. All the relatives, friends, and 
slaves are called together and leave all their other occupations. 
It is indeed no easy matter to bring, often from a consider- 
able distance, the five enormous slabs which are to form the 
walls and roof of the vault. In order to detach these from the 
bed of rock, they commence by choosing a mass of granite 
or gneiss (this stone being found extensively throughout the 
central parts of the island), which naturally divides into layers 
of a few inches in thickness.^ Here they mark out the shape 
and dimensions of the slabs required by means of straight lines 
of dried cow-dung, which are set on fire. When the outline of 
the slab is thoroughly heated, cold water is dashed over it, 
producing a crack all along the lines ; there is then nothing 
further to do but to raise the stone by means of levers, and to 
drag it to the place where the tomb is to be constructed ; this 
is the longest and most difficult part of the whole business, for 
it may be several hundred, sometimes several thousand, yards 
over which these heavy stones have to be dragged, across hills 
and valleys. This work is an occasion of feasting and rejoicing,, 
during which many oxen are killed, and other expenses incurred 
in feeding those who assist. The Hova tombs are always 
erected in such a position as to attract attention ; sometimes 
they are even placed opposite the house of the head of the 
family. 

Besides the tombs properly so called, throughout the whole 
province of I marina there are to be seen pillars or slabs of stone 
erected in memory of deceased relatives, and which are called 
Tsdngambdto (lit, " standing stone ") or Fahatsiarbvana (lit.,. 
"that which makes remembered"). 

The Hova do not keep the dead in their houses as long as 
most of the other Malagasy, and they do not usually place 

^ This has frequently been stated, but it is incorrect. The slabs are mosth' 
taken from rock masses which show no divisional planes whatsoever, and often 
run directly across the grain (foliation) of the rock ; the splitting is due simply to- 
contraction when cold water is thrown upon them after heating. — J. S. 



302 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

them in coffins ; they wrap them in reddish-brown Idinba, often 
in considerable numbers ; and they carry them to the tomb on 
2.fdrafara, or kind of bier. In former times they placed upon 
the tomb or all round it — as is still the practice of the Betsileo, 
the Bezanozano, the Sihanaka and other tribes — the skulls of 
the oxen killed at the time of funerals ; but this custom is now 
abandoned. 

On returning from a funeral, the relatives who have led the 
mourning wash themselves and purify the clothes they wore by 
steeping a silver coin in some water over which they have 
invoked the blessing of God by prayers. At the end of the 
meal which terminates the funeral ceremonies, all those who 
have taken part receive also the dfana, or sprinkling with this 
same holy water. 

The mourning observances are rather strict. The nearest" 
relatives allow their hair to be dishevelled. The women wear 
no jacket iakdnjd) or skirt, wrapping themselves only in the 
Jamba. The men go without hats and let their beards grow ; 
they wash only the tips of their fingers, and their clothing 
must be soiled and dirty. Dancing and singing are forbidden. 
At the close of the mourning the relatives take part in a meal, 
at which is observed the dfana, or purification of all concerned, 
by the sprinkling upon them of the water consecrated to God. 

The mourning ceremonies are much more severe at the 
decease of the sovereign. All the people, both male and 
female, must shave their heads, with the exception of the heir 
to the crown and a few favoured individuals. Throughout an 
entire year no one can sleep upon a bed or sit upon a chair ; 
they must sleep and sit upon the ground. All mirrors must be 
turned with their face towards the wall, for it is not allowed 
during all the time of mourning for any one to look at them- 
selves in a glass. All labour, except necessary agriculture, is 
stopped. 

From time to time the Hova families practise a ceremony 
which they call mainddika (lit., " turning over"), and which con- 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 303 

sists in going to their tombs to turn the corpses on one side, so 
that they may not be fatigued by remaining too long in one 
position. This ceremony is usually observed during the year 
following the death of one of the members of the family. 
This is a time of feasting and rejoicing ; all the relatives are 
invited, and, dressed in their best clothing, with music going 
before the procession, repair to the family tomb in order to visit 
their dead relations, whom they turn round, as above described, 
and wrap up in new lamb a. One day I saw passing, with 
violins and drums, a procession which was moving the bones of 
a Hova woman of rank from the tomb of her last husband but 
one into that of her last husband, where she would finally rest. 
Throughout several years she had been made to visit these two 
tombs alternately, keeping company with each of her deceased 
spouses for several months ; they were now bringing her from 
the tomb of her first husband, because the wife who had replaced 
her in the affections of the deceased had died and required 
her place. 

Many of these customs, although practised until the last 
few years, are completely disappearing under the influence of 
civilisation and Christianity. 

The Betsileo. — The Betsileo bury their dead in subterranean 
caves, which are not, like those of the Hova, lined with stone, 
but are simply excavated in the ground at a depth which is 
often considerable, and to which access is gained by a long 
trench, which they are obliged to open at each interment, and 
which is filled up again afterwards. The corpses are placed 
upon mats spread on the ground, and are covered with a simple 
piece of cloth. Rich people have coffins with lids in the shape 
of a roof, and covered with coloured stuffs. 

The exterior monument is not always placed exactly above 
the grave, and varies somewhat in character. Sometimes, as in 
Imerina, it is formed of four walls from four to eight yards in 
length, and about four and a half to five feet high, but it differs 
in this point : the interior is not filled with earth, and on the 



304 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

banks of the Matsiatra a tree — hasina or fano (species of 
Dracaena and Piptadenia respectively), or some other kind — is 
planted in the middle. Between the rivers Mania and Matsiatra 
these funeral monuments are surrounded and surmounted by a 
number of wooden posts more or less ornamented with patterns 
cut in relief, and joined together with transverse bars also 
carved ; the corner posts are terminated by an ornament in 
the form of a vase. In other cases, the memorial is a simple 
pillar of dressed granite, measuring from eighteen inches to two 
feet square, and from six to nine feet high, and carrying on its 
top a band of iron, bristling with points, to which are affixed 
the skulls and horns of cattle ; or it is surrounded at the angles 
with carved wooden posts, fixed together with transverse pieces 
of wood. In some cases it is reduced to a single post, orna- 
mented with carving, and surmounted by the usual vase-shaped 
finial, and with a wooden stage, to which are fixed the bleached 
skulls from the oxen killed at the funeral ceremonies. 

Some families do not place their dead in the ground ; they 
deposit them in natural grottos, or in caves hollowed out by 
hand, on the perpendicular faces of certain mountains, places to 
which no access can be gained except by very lofty scaffolding. 

The Andriana or nobles among the Betsileo are not interred 
for some time after their death. About the third day, when 
the body is already swollen, it is rolled upon planks so as to 
thoroughly soften the flesh ; and on the following day the 
relatives fasten it tightly to the central post of the house with 
thoncfs cut from the hides of the oxen killed for the funeral 
ceremonies, and then make a large incision in each heel. Large 
earthen pots are then placed under the feet to receive the putrid 
liquid which escapes from the decomposition of the body. 
These pots are examined with the greatest care, for the corpse 
cannot be removed from the house, and no one can work in 
the fields, until a certain small worm or maggot has made its 
appearance in one of the vessels. They wait sometimes for two 
and even three months before being able to proceed with the 



i 



1 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 305 

interment. The vessel is shut up in the grave together with the 
body, and they arrange a long bamboo, one end of which is 
plunged into the liquid, the other being flush with the surface of 
the ground, in order that the maggot, after its transformation 
into a serpent or fandno, may be able to come out of the tomb 
and go and visit its relatives ; for the Betsileo believe that the 
soul of the departed reappears under the form of a reptile. 
Formerly it was not in the case of the nobles only that these 
repulsive ceremonies were observed, but now they are entirely 
confined to them. 

The Bdra. — It appears that the Bara lay their dead entirely 
naked upon the ground and cover them over with stones ; their 
tombs are not more than from a foot to eighteen inches in 
height. Certain families, among others those who inhabit the 
Isalo chain of mountains, also place them quite naked, either in 
caverns, or among rocks, with the skulls of the oxen killed 
during the funeral ceremonies ; for a third part, and often even 
a half, of the oxen belonging to the deceased are killed on these 
occasions. The Rev. J. Richardson found in the western part of 
the Bara country posts of eight or nine feet high, and bearing 
at their summits rude female figures of the natural size, which 
were probably placed as memorials of persons who had died at 
a distant place. 

Such are the principal funeral customs of the Malagasy. 
We can see from the sum of the facts I have brought together 
that there is a close resemblance between the burial customs of 
the Malagasy and those of the Indonesians, which afford one 
more proof, if any were necessary, of the emigration into 
Madagascar of some of the peoples of the extreme East. 

Funeral Ceremonies at the Burial of a Hova King 
{Raddma I.) 

The foregoing paper, translated by permission from an 
article by Mons. A. Grandidier, may, I think, be appropriately 
concluded by the following account, written by an eye- 

21 



306 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

witness, of the remarkable ceremonial employed at the burial 
of a Hova sovereign during the early part of the present 
century : — 

On Sunday, the third day after the announcement of the 
death of Radama (August 4, 1828), there was a large kabary, 
or national assembly, held in a fine open space in the city, on 
the west side of the hill on which Antananarivo stands. In this 
space were assembled from 25,000 to 30,000 persons, seated in 
groups according to the districts to which they belonged. 

At the close of this kabary it was proclaimed that, according 
to the custom of the country, as a token of mourning, every 
person in the kingdom of every age must shave or cut off 
closely the hair of their heads, and whosoever should be found 
with their heads unshaved, after three days from the proclama- 
tion, should be liable to be put to death. Also, that no person 
whatsoever should do any kind of work (except those who 
should be employed in preparing the royal tomb, coffin, &c.) ; 
no one should presume to sleep upon a bed, but on the floor 
only, during the time of mourning. No woman, however high 
her rank, the queen only excepted, should wear her Idmba or 
cloth above her shoulders, but must, during the same period, 
go always with her shoulders, chest, and head uncovered. 

During the interval between this Sunday and the 12th 
instant, the mournfully silent appearance of the city, though 
tens of thousands of persons were constantly crowding through 
the streets — some dragging huge pieces of granite or beams of 
timber, or carrying red earth in baskets on their heads, for the 
construction of the tomb ; others, and those chiefly females, 
going with naked heads and shoulders, to the palace to mourn, 
or else returning from that place after staying there as mourners 
perhaps twelve hours, was exceedingly impressive. The air of 
deep melancholy on the countenances of all, and the audible 
moanings of the multitudes who filled the courts of the palace 
and the adjoining streets, quite affected us, and produced the 
conviction that the grief was real and deep for one whom they 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 307 

regarded as their benefactor and friend, and as the best king 
that Madagascar had ever known. The wives of the principal 
chiefs from the neighbouring districts were carried to and from 
the place of mourning, each on the back of a stout man, just in 
the manner boys at school are accustomed to carry one another : 
the lady having her person, from the waist to the feet, covered 
with her white lamba^ or cloth. 

On Sunday, the nth, her Majesty sent to us to say that we 
might be present the day after, to assist at the funeral cere- 
monies ; and that General Brady would, at eight a.m., receive 
us I at his house and conduct us to the palace. Accordingly, 
at eight on the 12th we attended, when General Brady and 
I Prince Correllere conducted us through the crowded streets of 
!J mourners, through the guards of soldiers, and through the still 
i more crowded courts of the palace, which were thronged chiefly 
by women and girls, couched down, or prostrate in many 
instances, making audible lamentations. 

There are several courts, with one or more palaces in each, 

separated from each other by high wooden railings ; and the 

whole of the courts and palaces are surrounded by a heavy 

. railing of great height, twenty-five feet, including a dwarf stone 

wall on which the wooden railing is fixed. The whole extent 

of this railing was covered with white cloth, as were also the 

oldest and most sacred of the palaces. The favourite palace 

i of Radama, in which he died, and where in fact the body then 

lay, is called the Silver Palace ; it is a square building, of two 

floors, and two handsome verandahs running round it. This 

palace is named the Silver Palace on account of its being 

I ornamented, from the ground to the roof, by the profusion of 

large flat-headed silver nails and plates of the same metal. The 

roof of this palace (as indeed of all the principal houses), a 

very high-pitched roof, is so high, that from the top of the wall 

^ George Bennet, Esq., one of a deputation from the London Missionary 
Society, and then completing here in Madagascar their visitation of the various 
stations occupied by the Society in different parts of the world. — J. S. 



308 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

to the ridge is as great a distance as from the foundation to the 
top of the wall supporting the roof We found it covered from 
the roof to the ground with hangings of rich satins, velvets, 
silks, their native costly silk lambas^ 8ic., and all the vast roof 
was covered with the finest English scarlet broadcloth. 

In front of this palace had been erected a most splendid 
pavilion, surrounded by highly-decorated pillars, which were 
wrapped round with various coloured silks, satins, &c. The 
pavilion was ten feet square, raised on pillars also richly orna- 
mented. A platform of wood was thrown over upon the 
pillars, and above this platform hung, supported by one trans- 
verse pole, an immense canopy or pall of the richest gold 
brocade, with stripes of blue satin and scarlet cloth, the whole 
bordered by a broad gold lace and finished by a deep gold 
fringe. All the arrangements were in good taste, and formed 
together a most brilliant spectacle. 

We had nearly reached the Silver Palace when we were 
stopped, it being announced that the corpse was at that moment 
about to be brought out to be conveyed to the more sacred 
White Palace previous to its being entombed. We immediately 
saw about sixteen or twenty females brought out of the apart- 
ment where the corpse lay, each lady on the back of her stout 
bearer, weeping and lamenting aloud ; these were the queens 
and princesses of the royal family, and formed the first part of 
the procession from one to the other palace ; our place was 
appointed immediately after the queens, but it was with diffi- 
culty we could get along, many females having thrown them- 
selves on the path which was to have been kept open. The 
mourners had done this that the corpse might pass over them, 
and we in fact were many times under the necessity of treading 
upon their prostrate persons. The corpse was carried into the 
White Palace that it might, in this more sacred place, be 
stripped of its old clothes and clothed with new, and also that it 
might be placed in a wooden coffin. In this palace we were 
honoured with a station not far from the corpse, which was 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 309 

being fanned by about sixteen or twenty young ladies, daughters 
of principal chiefs. 

At eight, on the morning of Tuesday, we were again at the 
palace, and were conducted by General Brady and Prince 
Correllere through the crowds of mourners, indeed over some of 
them, as well as over ten fine favourite bulls of the late king ; 
these lay directly in our path, and we could not help treading 
on them. The paths were all covered with blue or white cloth 
of the country. The corpse had been transferred at the close 
of the day before to a huge coffin or chest, of their heaviest and 
most valuable wood. The coffin was then carried from this 
White Palace back to the Silver Palace in solemn procession, 
the queens, &c., following next the coffin, and we succeeded 
them ; some of the Europeans had accepted the honour of 
assisting to carry the coffin, which was a tremendous weight 
judging from appearance. I declined the honour, charging 
myself with the care of our missionary ladies. 

On again reaching the Silver Palace the coffin was not taken 
j in, but raised upon the wooden platform over the pavilion, over 
I which the splendid pall or canopy of gold was drawn, which 
i concealed it entirely from view. In this pavilion, under the 
: platform (which was raised about seven feet), upon mats placed 
I on the ground, the royal females seated or threw themselves in 
seeming agonies of woe, which continued through the day ; and 
at sunset, when the entombment was taking place, their lamen- 
tations were distressing in the extreme. All the day great 
multitudes had been employed in preparing the tomb, which 
was in the court and not far from the pavilion. This tomb, at 
which tens of thousands had been incessantly working ever 
since the announcement of the king's death — either in fetching 
earth or granite stones or timber, or else in cutting or fitting the 
stones, timber, &c. — consisted of a huge mound of a square 
figure, built up of clods and earth, surrounded or faced by 
masses of granite, brought and cut and built up by the people. 
The height of this mound was upwards of twenty feet ; 



310 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

about sixty feet square at the base, gradually decreasing as it 
rose, until at the top it was about twenty feet square. The 
actual tomb, or place to receive the coffin and the treasures 
destined to accompany the corpse, was a square well or recess, 
in the upper part of this mound or pyramid, about ten feet 
cube, built of granite and afterwards being lined, floored, and 
ceiled with their most valuable timbers. 

At the foot of this mound had been standing most of the 
day the large and massy silver coffin, destined to receive the royal , 
corpse. This coffin was about eight feet long, three feet and a 
half deep, and the same in width ; it was formed of silver plates 
strongly riveted together with nails of the same metal ; all 
made from Spanish dollars : twelve thousand dollars were 
employed in its construction. About six in the evening this 
coffin was by the multitude heaved up one of the steep sides of 
the mound to the top and placed in the tomb or chamber. 
Immense quantities of treasures of various kinds were deposited 
in or about the coffin, belonging to his late Majesty, consisting 
especially of such things as during his life he most prized. Ten 
thousand hard dollars were laid in the silver coffin for him to lie 
upon ; and either inside, or chiefly outside the coffin, were 
placed or cast all his rich habiliments, especially military. 
There were eighty suits of very costly British uniforms, hats 
and feathers ; a golden helmet, gorgets, epaulettes, sashes, 
gold spurs, very valuable swords, daggers, spears (two of 
gold), beautiful pistols, muskets, fowling-pieces, watches, rings, 
brooches, and trinkets ; his whole superb sideboard of silver 
plate, and large and splendid solid gold cup, with many others 
presented to him by the King of England ; great quantities of 
costly silks, satins, fine clothes, very valuable silk lambas of 
Madagascar, &c. 

We were fatigued and pained by the sight of such quantities 
of precious things consigned to a tomb. As ten of his fine 
favourite bulls had been slaughtered yesterday, so six of his 
finest horses were speared to-day and lay in the courtyard near 



f» 



FUNERAL CEREMONIES AMONG THE MALAGASY. 311 



the tomb, and to-morrow six more are to be killed. When to 
all these extravagant expenses are added the twenty thousand 
oxen, worth here five Spanish dollars each (which have been 
given to the people and used by them for food during the 
preparation for and at the funeral), the missionaries conjecture 
that the expense of the funeral cannot be less than sixty thou- 
sand pounds sterling. All agree that though these people are 
singularly extravagant in the expenses they incur at their 
funerals, yet there never was a royal funeral so expensive as 
this, for no sovereign in this country ever possessed one-fifth 
of his riches. 

The silver coffin having been placed in the tomb, the corpse 
in the wooden one was conveyed by weeping numbers from the 
top of the platform over the pavilion to the top of the pyramid 
and placed beside the chamber. Here the wooden coffin was 
broken up, and the corpse exposed to those near. At this time 
the royal female mourners, who had been all day uttering their 
moans in the pavilion, now crawled up the side of the pyramid 
to take a last view of the remains. They were most of them 
obliged to be forced away ; their lamentations were now very 
loud and truly distressing to hear. The expressions used by 
them in lamentation were some of them translated for us ; the 
following was chiefly the substance : — " Why did you go away 
and leave me here ? Oh ! come again and fetch me to you ! " 
The body was transferred from the coffin of wood to that of 
silver. Those who were engaged in this service seemed to 
suffer from the effluvia, though many were constantly employed 
sprinkling eau-de-cologne. When the transfer had taken place 
the wooden coffin was thrown piecemeal into the tomb. 

During the whole of this day, while the chamber in the tomb 
was being prepared, the King's two bands of music, with drums 
and fifes, &c., were in the court and played almost unceasingly, 
relieving each other by turns. The tunes were such as Radama 
most delighted in — many of the peculiar and favourite airs of 
England, Scotland and Ireland, with waltzes, marches, &c. 



312 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

During intervals cannon and musketry were fired outside of 
the courts of the palace, and answered by musketry from the 
numerous soldiers inside of the courts. 

On the whole, while this funeral of Radama was the most 
extravagant, it was the most splendid and orderly thing that 
could be conceived amongst such an uncivilised people. 

[Extracted from Voyages and Travels Round the World, by the Rev. 
Daniel Tyerman and George Bennet, Esq. London, 1840, 2nd ed., pp. 
284-286.] 



H 



CHAPTER XV, 

DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD, ESPECIALLY ON THE 
BURIAL MEMORIALS OF THE BkTSILEO MALAGASY ; 
TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON THE HANDICRAFTS OF 
THE MALAGASY AND NATIVE PRODUCTS. 

Absence of artistic feeling among the Hova — The Betsileo — Carved memorial 
posts — Various forms of tombs — Character of the carving — Vatolaliy or 
memorial stones — Graves at great depths — Carving in houses — Collection of 
rubbings — General style of ornamentation — Symbolic meaning ? — Malagasy 
handicrafts — Spinning and weaving — Different kinds of cloth — Straw-work 
— Bark-cloth — Metal- work — Pottery — Building — Canoes and boats — Culti- 
vated products of country — Exports. 

TO those who have paid attention to the indigenous art 
developed amongst the uncivilised races of mankind, and 
are acquainted with the elaborate and varied ornamentation 
used by the Malayan, the Polynesian, and the Melanesian tribes, 
there is something very surprising in the almost total absence of 
ornamental art amongst the Hova and some of the other peoples 
inhabiting Madagascar. If we look at any illustrated book 
describing the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands, or, still better, 
if we carefully study the ethnological galleries of our British 
Museum, or the Pitt-Rivers collection at Oxford, we shall find 
that every group, and sometimes every solitary island, has each 
its particular style of ornament, special to itself, and easily 
distinguishable from that of other groups or islands. Their 
canoes and paddles, clubs and spears, houses and beds, dishes 
and spoons, pipes and snuff-boxes, gourds and bowls, are all 
ornamented, sometimes most elaborately and beautifully ; and 

313 



314 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

this decoration extends to their own persons, in the practice of 
tattooing, and in the patterns woven into the cloth or matting 
of their dresses, or stamped upon the bark cloth they procure 
from various trees. But we see hardly anything of all this in 
Imerina, the central province of Madagascar. It is true that 
many of the large stone tombs built of late years have some 
architectural pretensions, and decorative carving is employed on 
them, but the details are mostly copied from drawings of Euro- 
pean buildings, and cannot be properly considered as examples 
of indigenous art.^ I was therefore much interested during a 
journey to the south of Madagascar, made in the year 1876, 
to discover that amongst the Betsileo there is a decided and 
special style of ornament, which is used in their houses, their 
tombs, and many of their household utensils, as spoons, gourds, 
dishes, &c. ; and that a kind of tattooing is very common 
amongst them, in which some of the same ornamental details 
are also introduced. It should perhaps here be noted that this 
tribe of Malagasy occupy the southern central highlands of 
Madagascar. They are darker in colour than the Hova, and 
although physically bigger and stronger, were conquered by them 
in the early part of the present century. They are variously 
estimated as numbering from six hundred thousand to a million 

^ The only examples I can recall of anything distinctively characteristic of 
the Hova Malagasy as regards decoration are a slight ornamentation of the long 
gable timbers or "horns," and also in the dormer windows, of the old-fashioned 
native houses, which sometimes have a chevron or " dog-tooth," or small semi- 
circular ornament cut on their lower edge ; also the conventionalised square 
flower and leaf pattern, used on their iiner silk cloths or lambas ; and, perhaps, 
some of the patterns in the straw- work of their fine mats and baskets. In the 
interior ornamentation of some of the royal houses at Antananarivo there 
seemed to me to be a certain distinct style prevalent. This is chiefly seen in 
the painted decorations of the upper parts of the walls, and sometimes of the 
ceilings, which, both in the colouring and large bold style of the patterns, 
always reminded me somewhat of Assyrian ornament, as shown in the decoration 
of the palaces at Persepolis. There is very little that is decorative in Hova 
pottery, but a special kind of vessel made for cooking the beef at the New Year's 
festival is rather elegant in shape, much resembling some of the Anglo-Saxon 
pottery. These vessels are circular and somewhat flattened, and are frequently 
ornamented with a series of lines and zigzags, very closely resembling those on 
the early fictile productions of the Germanic races. 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 315 

and a half. Probably they are really somewhere between 
these two estimates, i,e.^ somewhat over a million in number. 
I had occasionally heard from missionaries who had lived in 
or visited the Betsileo country that there was a good deal of 
decorative carving in this southern province ; but no one, so 
far as I am aware, has yet described at all adequately the 
character of this ornament, or the different varieties of tombs 
and burial memorials seen in the Betsileo province ; and 
although my observations were only those made on a rapid 
journey through the country, on my way to the south-east 
coast, and on a subsequent journey to Fianarantsoa, the capital 
of the province, they may perhaps have some interest as a slight 
contribution towards a fuller knowledge of the subject, and 
may, perhaps, lead those who are resident in the province to 
give it that thorough investigation which it deserves. 

I first noticed something new in the tombs in the tract of 
country between Isandrandahy and Ambositra. Within two 
or three hours' journey from the latter place I observed that 
the upright stones placed near graves were not the rough 
undressed blocks or slabs common in Imerina, but were finely 
dressed and squared, and ornamented with carving. (In 
Imerina, I may here remark, the Hova tombs consist of a 
vault made of large undressed slabs of blue granite rock, with 
stone shelves, upon which the dead are laid, tightly wrapped up 
in a number of native cloth lanibas, the outer ones of silk. The 
door is of stone, with pivot hinges, above and below, fitting into 
sockets ; and the whole structure is usually finished with a 
square erection of dressed stonework, in two or three stages, 
often with a kind of headstone, on which, since the introduction 
of letters, is frequently cut the name and titles of the head of 
the family. When the corpse of a person of rank and position 
cannot be obtained for burial in the family tomb, as occasionally 
happens in war, a rough undressed slab of stone is erected as a 
burial memorial. These are often ten or twelve feet high, and 
are termed vatoldhy, which means literally " male-stone " ; and 



3l6 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

I have sometimes thought that this word, and the shape of 
the stone, may indicate some ancient connection with phallus 
worship. 

On one of the days of my stay at Ambositra, I walked to 
the top of the rising ground on the western slope of which the 
town is principally built. Here there was an old Amontana ^ 
tree, and memorials to some of the early kings of the Betsileo. 
The chief of these was a piece of timber seven or eight inches 
square and about ten feet high, having pieces of wood pro- 
jecting from a little below the top, so as to form a kind of stage. 
Each face of the timber was elaborately carved with different 
patterns arranged in squares. Some of these were concentric 
circles, a large one in the centre, with smaller ones filling up 
the angles ; others had a circle with a number of little bosses 
in them ; others had a kind of leaf ornament ; and in others 
parallel lines were arranged in different directions. The narrow 
spaces dividing these squares from each other, had in some cases 
an ornament like the Norman chevron or zigzag, and in others, 
something similar to the Greek wave-like scroll. The whole 
erection with its ornamentation bore a strong resemblance to 
the old runic stones, or the memorial crosses in Ireland and 
parts of the Scottish Highlands. The north face of this 
memorial post was quite sharp and fresh, but the others were 
worn by the weather, and the carving was filled up with lichens. 
I was greatly interested with this carving, as being almost the 
first specimen I had seen of indigenous Malagasy art ; and I 
greatly regretted having no appliances with me for taking a 
" rubbing " or a " squeeze." Not very far from this memorial 
there were some others, consisting of two pairs of posts, each 
with a lintel, like a gateway, except that the opening was filled 
up by a large flat upright stone. These posts were carved 
much in the same style as the single one just described, but 
were not so massive, and were more weathered. The tops of 
the posts were carved into a shape somewhat resembling a vase. 

* Ficus Baroni, Baker. 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 317 

I then remembered that, two or three days before, we had 
passed a newly set-up memorial stone carved in three large 
squares, with much the same kind of ornament as these posts 
had in wood. 

I now regret still more not having obtained some sketch of 
this group of burial memorials, because, on visiting Ambositra 
again twelve years subsequently, I found that the whole had 
been utterly swept away. The Hova governor had appropri- 
ated the site for his official residence and courtyard, and the 
picturesque tombs of the old Betsileo chiefs and the fine trees 
had been destroyed to make way for a great brick building, raw 
and commonplace, whose erection had been a heavy tax upon 
the unpaid service of the people. 

On our journey from Ambositra to Fianarantsoa, at about 
two hours' distance from the former place, we passed a tomb 
by the roadside with a carved wooden post similar to those at 
Ambositra. I got down from the palanquin and examined it ; 
some of the carving was similar to what I had already seen, but 
there were other graceful forms which were new, and some of 
the compartments were like the English Union-Jack. But it 
was on the following day, when passing over the elevated line 
of road between Zoma Nandihizana and Ambohinamboarina, 
that I was most astonished and interested by the profusion 
with which the carved memorials were scattered along the 
roadside, as well as in all directions over the tract of country 
visible on either hand. Leaving an elevated valley — if one can 
so describe it — a long, nearly level hollow on high ground, with 
hills on either side not a mile apart, and gently curving round 
to the south-west — we came out at last to an uninterrupted 
view, and in sight of a rounded green hill, about a quarter of a 
mile to the west of the road. This place is called Ikangara, and 
has a few houses and a little church on the top. But between it 
and the road there was a large number of tombs and memorial 
posts, so my companion and I went to inspect them. They 
were well worth a visit, as in a small space there were grouped 



_ 



3l8 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

together many different kinds of monuments, with wood carving 
in great variety. Within a short distance were some forty or 
fifty tombs, and on examining them there appeared to be the 
following kinds : — 

(i) The largest tombs — there were two of them — were of 
small flat stones, built in a square of some twenty to twenty-five 
feet, and about five feet high. But around them was a railing 
of carved posts and rails, those at each corner with the vase- 
shaped top already described ; these were connected by a 
transverse rail, and this again was supported on each of the 
four sides by upright posts which finished under the rail. All 
the upright timbers were carved in patterns like those seen at 
Ambositra and on the road the previous day. 

(2) Another kind of tomb was formed by a square structure 
of small flat stones, four or five feet high, and perhaps a dozen 
feet square ; but on the top was a square enclosure of four 
carved posts with the vase-shaped heads, connected by lintels, 
and with an intermediate upright. This structure was about 
four feet square, by seven or eight feet high, and in the centre 
was a single carved post. 

(3) A third kind of monument was a massive block of 
granite, from eight to ten feet high, and from eighteen inches 
to two feet square, with carved posts at the four corners and 
touching them. On the top these were connected by carved 
cross pieces, and upon these the skulls of the bullocks killed at 
the funeral of the person the monument commemorated were 
placed. Many of these horned skulls remained in their places. 

(4) Another kind of memorial was a massive square post of 
wood, about twenty feet high and fifteen inches square, carved 
on all four sides from top to bottom. There were four or five 
of these enormous posts here. In one case there was a pair 
of them, as if to form a kind of gateway ; two or three were 
split nearly all down their length by the action of the sun and 
weather. 

(5) Still another kind was an oblong block of dressed 




DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 319 

granite, with an iron hooping round the top, in which were 
fixed a dozen or more pairs of slender iron horns. There were 
two of this kind of monument at this place, and we afterwards 
saw others on the road. 

(6) Besides the foregoing there were numerous specimens 
of the smaller carved post such as we had already seen at 
Ambositra, with the vase-shaped head and a small open staging 
near the top, on which were fixed upright sharp-pointed pieces 
of wood. These were for placing the ox skulls upon. 

It may be here noted that the humped and long-horned ox 
being the largest animal known in Madagascar, this animal, 
especially the bull, is very often used in native proverbs, royal 
speeches, songs, and circumcision observances, as a symbol of 
power and authority, while the horn is frequently employed as 
an emblem of strength, much indeed as it was employed by the 
Hebrews and other Asiatics. Among the Sihanaka people lofty 
round poles are erected near their tombs, and at the top of these 
a forked branch of a tree is fixed, carved into a close resem- 
blance of a pair of horns. And in the Tanala, or forest region, 
the extremities of the gable timbers of the houses are fashioned 
into the form of horns. Among the Hova these are simply 
crossed and slightly ornamented, small wooden figures of birds 
being often affixed to them, but they are still called " house 
horns," or tandro-trano. In royal proclamations the soldiers are 
styled " horns of the kingdom." There are many interesting 
customs among the Malagasy, showing that the ox has retained 
the semi-sacred character it bears among many nations-; in 
some tribes only the chiefs are allowed to kill the animal, 
evidently because the chief or king is also the high-priest of 
the tribe ; while among other Malagasy peoples the ox is only 
killed at certain seasons which have some religious significance. 
The native kings are saluted as ombeldhy, or " bulls " ; and the 
same expression frequently occurs in forms of benediction at the 
circumcision and other festivities. 

To return, however, to the interesting group of tombs at 



320 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Ikangara. Many of these memorials were sorely weathered 
and defaced, and others were falling, or had fallen, and were 
rotting away. But there was a great variety of pattern, many 
of them being well worth preserving and copying. 

On the roadside, before we turned from the main path to 
look at Ikangara, were a number of the more simple tombs, of 
a kind that seem peculiar to the Betsileo. They consist of a 
plain square, almost a cube, of thin undressed stones laid very 
evenly. In some instances these had upright slabs at the 
corners and centres of the sides, so that they were not unlike 
Hova tombs, but the majority were of small stones only, laid 
horizontally. From the number of handsome tombs and 
memorials near this little town, we judged that it must have 
been an important place in former days. We stayed some 
considerable time examining this ancient cemetery, and then 
proceeded on our way southwards. 

Our road lay along the top of a long ridge, with a valley on 
the west and an extensive plain on the east, with numerous 
hills, and old fortifications on their tops. Over the plain were 
dotted small villages and numberless green vcila, or homesteads 
of the Betsileo, enclosed in a circular and impenetrable fence of 
thorny mimosa or Tsictfakomby, i.e., " impassable by cattle " 
{CcBsalpinia sepiaria, Roxb.). About a quarter of an hour after 
leaving Ikangara, we came to an old fortification running along 
the crest of the ridge, and called lanjanonakely ; a low stone 
rampart extended for a hundred yards or more along the hill, 
and there were many tombs. Indeed we were struck by the 
number of tombs and carved monuments on the roadside all 
the way to Ambohinamboarina. The most common form is the 
plain square tomb of thin, small, undressed stones, and the 
upright vdtolahy, or block of granite, from eighteen inches to 
two feet square, and eight to ten feet high. While the tsangam- 
bato in Imerina are all of rough undressed slabs of blue rock, 
these in Betsileo are of fine-grained, hard white granite, in 
massive blocks, and dressed to a beautifully smooth face. They 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 32 1 

are often in couples, and in one instance there were two 
stones, with an elaborately carved post between them. But the 
combinations of the different kinds of memorial were very- 
numerous ; there was something new every few yards ; and 
all over the plain, near every little cluster of houses, we could 
see these white memorial stones. 

South of the Matsiatra river, and nearer Fianarantsoa, I 
noticed that there were very few of the upright square memorial 
stones compared with what we saw the previous day, and that 
there were no carved wood pillars at all. All the tombs, which 
hereabouts were very numerous, were the plain square or cube 
of undressed flat stones. The majority of these, I was surprised 
to find, were hollow, many having trees — Hasina^ Fdno, and 
others — growing out of the middle, which has a circular opening, 
and overshadowing the whole tomb, a sight never seen in 
Imerina. From this it was clear that the chamber in which 
the corpses are deposited does not project at all above the 
ground, as it does in Hova tombs ; and I afterwards ascertained 
that this chamber is excavated at considerable depth beneath 
the square pile of stones, which is therefore not a grave, but 
only marks the place of one far below the surface. I noticed 
also that there was in most cases a long low mound of earth 
extending from one side of the tomb to a distance of from 
thirty or forty to eighty feet and upwards. This, it appears, 
marks the line of a long tunnelled passage gradually descending 
from the surface to the deeply sunk burial chamber. Mr. 
Richardson says that some of the Betsileo tombs are " as much 
as sixty feet deep, and are approached by a gradually descending 
passage opening some forty or fifty feet distant from the burial 
chamber. The tombs of the rich are sometimes 15 or 16 feet 
square, and are quite on the surface of the ground ; and the 
four walls and roof are formed of five immense stone slabs, 
which are brought from great distances, and involve almost 
incredible labour. I measured one slab of granite, which was 
more than 18 feet long, 10 feet wide, and nearly 3 feet thick 

22 



322 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

in some parts. I was once in a tomb i8 feet long, 14 feet 
wide, and 10 feet high, formed of five stones, in one of which, 
to the west, had been cut an opening, and a rude stone door, 
working in stone sockets, had been fixed there. The finest 
memorial stone I saw was almost circular, and was 4 feet in 
diameter, and about 20 feet high above the ground. Sometimes 
these stones are covered with carved oxen and birds. The most 
honourable superstructure is a solid mass of masonry erected 
over the stone tombs just described. These are square in shape, 
and about 6 feet high. A cornice is worked round the top, and 
on this are laid the skulls of all the oxen killed at the funeral 
regularly arranged. I have seen one, now rapidly falling into 
decay, on which were no less than 500 such skulls ! The most 
symmetrical I ever saw was a new tomb, on which, in the outer 
square, were arranged 108 skulls of oxen in most regular order, 
every other skull being that of an ox whose horns had grown 
downwards. There were also two other squares of skulls 
arranged behind this one. It was a strange sight to see so 
many skulls of oxen with the horns, arranged thus, and bleach- 
ing in the sun." 

All through the country south of the so-called " desert," or 
uninhabited region, near Ivotovorona, we were struck by the 
tattooing on the chest, neck, and arms of many of the people. 
In some cases the men had figures of oxen, and in others an 
ornament like a floriated Greek cross ; while the women had a 
kind of tattooed collar, which looked like deep lace-work or 
vandyking on the neck and chest. But I Jiave never seen 
tattooing on the faces of the people. 

I regretted that, our journey being made chiefly for the 
purpose of seeing districts further south than Betsileo, we were 
unable to visit some of the larger old Betsileo towns, such as 
Ifanjakana, Nandihizana, Ikalamavony, and others, where I 
was told there is a great deal of the peculiar carving to be seen 
not only in the tombs, but also in the dwelling houses and 
furniture. We did, however, see two specimens of this native 



I DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 323 

I art as used in building : first, just before entering the Tanala 
i country, and again, immediately on leaving the forest on our 
I return home. The first example was at a village of forty houses 
I called Ivalokianja, about two hours south-east of Imahazony. 
I Here we went into one of the houses in the village for our 
lunch ; it was the largest house there, but was not so large as 
I our tent (11 feet square), and the walls were only 5 feet 6 inches 
I high. The door was a small square aperture, i foot 10 inches 
1 wide by 2 feet 4 inches high, and its threshold 2 feet 9 inches 
jl from the ground. Close to it, at the end of the house, was 
j another door or window, and opposite were two small openings 
about a foot and a half square. The hearth was opposite the 
1 door, and the bed-place in what is the window corner in Hova 
I houses. In this house was the first example I had seen of 
; decorative carving in Malagasy houses ; the external faces of 
!| the main post supporting the roof being carved with a simple 
!' but effective ornament of squares and diagonals. There was 
'I also other ornamentation much resembling the English Union 
. Jack. The gables were filled in with a neat platted work of 
'^ split bamboo. The majority of the houses in this and most of 
the Betsileo villages are only about 10 or 11 feet long by 8 
I or 9 feet wide, and the walls from 3 to 5 feet high. A stranger 
seeing many of these native houses for the first time would say 
I that they had no doors, and only very small windows, for the 
I doors are so small and high up that entering such a house is a 
I gymnastic feat requiring considerable agility, and more amusing 
to an onlooker than pleasant to the performer. All ideas of 
! dignity must be laid aside. 

The other example we saw of carving used for house orna- 
mentation was at a small cluster of half a dozen houses called 
Ifandriana, some three hours before reaching Isandraftdahy on 
the way from Ambohimanga in the Tanala. The three centre 
posts of the timber house, in which we stayed, were all covered 
with carving of much the same character as that used in the 
memorial posts already described, but it was not quite so well 



324 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

executed. The nearly square window shutters had each a 
circular ornament carved upon them, much like the conven- 
tional representations of the sun, with rays, proceeding from a 
centre, thirteen in number. During a more recent visit to the 
Betsileo province, I had opportunities of seeing some other 
interiors ; and in these not only were the three posts of the 
house and the windows carved, but also the woodwork enclosing 
the fixed bedstead — quite a little room of itself— as well as 
other timberwork about the building. In a paper contributed 
by Mr. Shaw to the Antananarivo Annual for 1878, he re- 
marks : — " The most distinctive indigenous art of the Betsileo 
is the carving, which is noticed by every one travelling in any 
part of the province. There is an endless variety of patterns, 
though a great number are formed by combinations of three or 
four simple designs, that appear, in some form or other, on 
nearly every house-post or door, which are highly ornamented." 

One of the most perfect examples of the carved memorial 
post we saw the same day, in the morning, at the picturesquely 
situated village of Ivohitrdmbo. This place is perched like an 
eagle's nest on the summit of a lofty cone of rock, on the edge 
of the interior plateau, and overlooking the great forest, the 
country of the Tanala tribes, above which it towers about 
2,500 feet. This memorial was close to the village, and was 
very perfect, the carving very sharp, and the stage near the top, 
consisting of several pieces of wood crossing one another, in 
good preservation, with about thirty ox skulls and horns still in 
their places. 

It may be added that in many cases figures of oxen and 
men are carved in some of the panels or compartments of these 
memorial posts, but the ornament is chiefly conventional. The 
Betsileo name for these memorial pillars is teza or tezan-kazo ; 
the root teza means "durability, anything firmly fixed," and 
also, " fixed upright." 

In his little book entitled Madagascar of To-day, Mr. Shaw 
says, " Perhaps the most elaborately carved post I saw during 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 325 

my residence of eight years in the Betsileo was at a small 
village about a day's journey north-west of Fianarantsoa. 
This was the central post of a high house belonging to one of 
the chiefs. It was twenty feet high and carved from top to bottom. 
Each of the four surfaces, about eighteen inches broad, was 
divided into sections by cross-cuts forming squares with the 
edge of the post. In each of these were different designs 
formed according to the individual tastes of the many men 
who were probably impressed into the service of the chief to 
perform the work. Some consisted of radiating triangles, 
whose apices met in the central point ; some were filled with 
pairs of circles touching each other at the circumference ; others 
were concentric circles, and the corners of the squares filled 
with smaller curves springing from the outermost circle ; other 
squares were filled with zigzag lines running parallel to each 
other, or running diagonally across the square, while others were 
rough imitations of birds, bullocks, crocodiles, &c." 

Before leaving the subject of Betsileo art it may be added 
that gourds, fifes, tobacco boxes (a piece of finely polished 
reed or bamboo), and other articles are often very tastefully 
ornamented with patterns incised on the smooth yellow surface, 
the lines being then filled in with black. These patterns consist 
of lines, zigzags, scrolls, and diaper grounds, often very artistically 
arranged. 

As already remarked, my visit to the Betsileo in 1876 was 
too short and hasty to allow of a thorough examination of these 
interesting examples of indigenous art. And not thinking of 
meeting with such specimens of carving, I had not prepared 
myself beforehand with any appliances for taking drawings or 
copying them in any way. But an article in the Antananarivo 
Annual for 1876, which I have largely reproduced in this chapter, 
did, to some extent, have the effect I desired in drawing the 
attention of some of my brother missionaries to the subject, 
and especially in inducing Mr. Shaw to make a number of 
rubbings of the more characteristic specimens of the ornament 



326 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

employed. Still, these by no means convey a proper idea of 
the rich effect of many of these sculptured memorials, for 
hardly anything but photography and the autotype process 
could adequately reproduce the many varieties of elaborate 
carving that are to be found ; but still, much might be done by 
careful measurements and sketches and enlarged photographs. 
Many of the finest specimens of carving in the memorial posts 
and tombs are being fast obliterated by the action of the 
weather, and if not secured within a few years, the patterns 
carved upon them will soon be past recovery. Indeed, when 
passing by Ikangara seven years ago, I found the interesting 
group of burial memorials already described fast disappearing. 
Some of those I had seen in 1876 were quite gone, either rotted 
away by the rain and damp, or fallen to the ground and half 
buried in debris^ and the whole presenting a much less striking 
appearance than during my first visit twelve years previously. 
(Of course these remarks apply chiefly to those carvings which 
are out of doors ; those in houses have a much greater chance 
of preservation, but even here the desire to have larger and 
more modern fashioned dwellings, especially of sun-dried brick, 
will probably cause the destruction of many of these old- 
fashioned adornments.) Besides this, it is very probable that 
the incoming of ideas and fashions from foreigners will 
eventually lead to the discontinuance of this primitive style 
both of memorial and of ornament, although I have more 
recently found that such carvings are still executed, and such 
memorial posts still set up by the people. Still, as examples of 
indigenous art, it is very desirable that they should be copied 
as soon as possible, and perhaps it might be practicable to 
secure a few examples of the best carved pieces of wood them- 
selves, and have them carefully deposited in some place of 
safety for reference and preservation. Apart from their intrinsic 
interest, these carvings may prove of value in showing links of 
connection between the Betsileo and some of the Malayan and 
Oceanic peoples, and thus aid us in understanding more clearly 



11 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 327 

the race affinities of the people of Madagascar. Mr. Shaw- 
observes, "It is a significant fact that the simple designs [of 
the Betsileo carvings] are almost identical with the same species 
of ornamentation in Polynesia. On a carved hatchet-handle 
from Mangaia (Hervey Islands) in my possession are some 
patterns precisely like those on the spoon-handles manufactured 
by the untutored Betsileo. The wooden and horn spoons 
and wooden bowls for rice are also remarkably well carved, of 
good shape, beautifully smooth, and gracefully ornamented." 

I have been unable to ascertain whether there are any tradi- 
tions among the Betsileo as to the origin of this peculiar style of 
ornamentation, or whether the different patterns employed have 
any religious or symbolic meaning.^ Not having resided in the 
province, I have had no opportunity of making any inquiries of 
this sort, although many questions now suggest themselves as 
interesting. I hope that my brother missionaries stationed 
among the people will try and ascertain something more on 
these points. 

It will be understood that even Mr. Shaw's collection, valuable 
as it is, cannot give an adequate idea of the size of some of these 
memorial posts, many of which, as already mentioned, are twenty 
feet high, and eighteen inches square in section, while those he 
exhibited, in two of the rubbings, are only about four feet high. 
It would indeed be a rather formidable task to take a complete 
copy of these largest memorials, and would require many ap- 
pliances and assistances, as well as an amount of time such as 
missionaries can rarely give to pursuits outside their more imme- 
mediate and special work. I trust, however, that my descriptions 
will give some clear idea of these productions of the Betsileo, 
and will show the decided love of ornament which they manifest 
in their peculiar style of wood carving. 

^ In the discussion that followed the reading of this paper, one of the members 
expressed a strong opinion that these ornaments must have had originally some 
religious signification. He also pointed out the fact (which I had not myself 
noticed) that in all the circles the rays were thirteen in number, therefore probably 
bearing some meaning. Miss Buckland remarked that many of the patterns closely 
resembled those on articles from the Nicobar Islands. 



328 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

MALAGASY HANDICRAFTS. 

This chapter seems an appropriate place for saying something 
further about other manual arts practised by the people of 
Madagascar. I proceed therefore to describe briefly their chief 
handicrafts, and it must be remembered that these are strictly 
manufsictures in the original and literal sense of the word made 
by kand, and not by machinery, steam-engines and power looms 
being still unknown to the Malagasy. 

Spinning and Weaving. — Most of the Malagasy races are 
expert in the various arts in which dexterity of hand is requisite 
— manufactures, strictly so called — and their long, tapering 
fingers look as if formed for skilled work. In the processes con- 
nected with spinning and weaving, the Malagasy show no small 
amount of skill. They make a variety of cloths, both coarse 
and fine, of silk, cotton, and hemp, and from the fibres of the 
rofia palm leaf, the aloe, and the banana. With rude spindles 
of wood and bone, twirled by the hand, they spin the thread ; 
and then, with very simple looms, they weave the yarn thus pre- 
pared. But the weaving is regular and firm, and the fabrics 
produced are excellent in quality. 

The coarser cloths from the fibre of the rofia palm not only 
form the usual clothing of the poorer classes and the slaves, but 
they also constitute a considerable portion of the exports from 
the eastern side of the island. Many thousands of them, under 
the name of rabdnnas, are sent to Mauritius and Reunion, where 
they are used for a variety of purposes. The fibre is prepared 
from the fine pinnate leaves of the rofia palm ; these are stripped 
of the cuticle above and below, leaving a glossy, straw-coloured 
material, which is divided into threads of various breadths, as 
may be desired, by a sort of iron comb. The straw-tinted 
ground is varied by an endless variety of longitudinal stripes, 
the dyes for which are procured from coloured earth and vege- 
table substances. Very fine and strong cloths are also made 
from this fibre ; some of these have the woof of cotton, obtained 
by unravelling English or American calico. 



Jk 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 329 

A very favourite cloth, called arindroLno^ is made with a white 
ground of fine twilled cotton, with narrow stripes of black and 
coloured threads, and broad borders of black twilled silk, in 
which is a central pattern of colour. These form the Idmba, or 
outer native dress, which is folded gracefully, something in the 
fashion of the ancient Roman toga, one corner being thrown 
over the shoulder. European cottons are also largely used by 
the Hovas and the east coast tribes, a piece the size of a good- 
sized sheet or tablecloth forming a very good lamba. These 
often have borders of coloured silk sewn on to the ends of the 
stuff. 

But the skill and taste of the Malagasy, as regards weaving, 
are shown most in the handsome silk Idmbas, which are woven 
by the Hova women. These are of considerable variety of 
pattern and colouring (within certain conventional limits), often 
very rich and elegant in their effect, and with a peculiar kind of 
square leaf or flower introduced into the stripes, and various 
combinations of small diamond-shaped patterns. These silk 
Idmbas form a considerable portion of the wealth of every 
Malagasy family, as they are worth from twenty to fifty dollars 
each. They are only worn on special occasions, such as the New 
Year's festival, and at marriages, 8z:c. Dark-red silk Idmbas are 
used as the outer wrapping of a corpse among the Hovas, no 
coffin being employed for burial, but a great number of cloths 
instead. This dark-red Idmba also forms a sort of official dress 
for the judges and head-men of the districts ; and in many of 
them fine metal beads are woven into the stuff, so as to form a 
variety of ornamental patterns across the ends of the Idmba. 
Almost all Hova women, from the Queen down to the slave, 
can spin and weave ; in some . tribes, a girl is called zaza- 
ampela, i.e., " spindle child," a close analogy to our English word 
" spinster." 

Straw-work. — But besides spinning and weaving, the dexterity 
of the Malagasy women is seen hardly less in their straw-plaiting. 
From the great variety of grasses, as well as from the tough 



330 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

outer peel of the zozbro {papyrus) rush, they plait many kinds 
of baskets, large and small, coarse and fine, plain and coloured, 
and also mats of various degrees of fineness. Among the 
Hovas these are used for flooring, and lining walls and parti- 
tions, but among the Betsileo and south-eastern tribes, mats 
are the chief articles of clothing. Broad-brimmed straw hats of 
excellent quality are made by the Hovas, and this is their general 
head-dress. A considerable variety of straw caps and head- 
coverings are made and worn by the other tribes, some being 
peculiar to particular districts. The straw mats used for 
clothing are sewn into a kind of sack, which is kept in its 
place by a girdle of bark cloth. Some tribes are especially 
skilful in this manufacture. The Sihanaka and Betsileo make 
mats of a great length, a number of these forming part of the 
yearly tribute they pay to the Central Government. The Hovas 
also are very ingenious in making minute square baskets of 
straw, some of them not larger than f-inch cube, in which the 
plait, with beautiful patterns, is as fine as the finest weaving. 

Bark Cloth, — The bark cloth just mentioned, as used for 
girdles, is made by the people of the south-east coast and the 
forest tribes ; but in this branch of handicraft the Malagasy 
cannot compete with the delicate fabrics prepared from the bark 
of trees by many of the Polynesian races. The bark cloth of 
the Taimoro, Tanala, and other tribes, is a coarse reddish- 
brown material, of little strength, except in the direction of the 
fibre ; but its use, as well as the non-employment of skins for 
clothing, is one of the many links of connection between the 
Malagasy and the Malayo-Polynesian peoples, and serves 
(among many other peculiarities) to mark them off distinctly 
from the African tribes, who make such large use of the skins 
of animals as articles of dress. 

Metal Work, — In metal work, the Malagasy also show great 
skill in execution and ingenuity in design. In gold and silver 
work the native smiths make most fine and delicate chains, and 
they can produce copies of any article of jewellery with wonder- 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 33 1 

ful exactness. Their iron work (which is all wrought, not cast) 
is of excellent quality, and they can also turn out brass and 
copper work of good finish. In the Memorial Churches erected 
at the capital (i 864-1 874), the ornamental iron work — finials, 
railings, floriated hinges, &c. — were all executed by native work- 
men. Among the Hovas, the smelting and working of iron 
seems to have been known from a remote antiquity ; and they 
employ the same double-piston bellows which are used in the 
Malayan Peninsula and Islands. There seems to be no trace of 
a stone age when iron was not known to the Hovas ; although, 
according to tradition, the aboriginal tribe, called Vazimba, 
whom they displaced in the central province, were ignorant of 
the use of metal, and used spears made of burnt clay, and of 
the tough wiry bark of certain palms. 

Pottery. — In fictile art, the Malagasy are not so advanced as 
are many peoples who, in most other things, are their inferiors. 
Perhaps, however, this arises from the large use made by many 
of the tribes of vegetable substances and leaves for plates and 
dishes and waterpots, so that the necessity for articles of pottery 
has not been felt ; and also from the absence in the maritime 
plains of suitable clays. Amongst the peoples who live in and 
near the forests, wooden dishes are largely manufactured ; and 
the forest and coast dwellers also use the leaves of the pandanus, 
the banana, and the travellers'-tree for holding food and liquid ; 
while the jointed and chambered bamboo supplies them with 
vessels for drawing and storing water. Dishes of finely-woven 
straw or rush are also employed. But, in the central provinces, 
where vegetable materials are more scarce, and where clay is 
abundant, pottery is manufactured, and water vessels of various 
kinds are produced, as well as rude dishes, plates, and cooking 
pots. A special kind of vessel, made for cooking the beef at 
the New Year's festival, is elegant in shape — much like some 
of the Anglo-Saxon pottery now and then found in ancient 
" barrows," both in ornament and outline. Some of the water 
jars are of fine quality, and deep red in colour, like Samian ware. 



332 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

The horns of the fine humped cattle are manufactured into a 
variety of articles, especially spoons, dishes, and plates. Almost 
every tribe has some special pattern of wooden spoon peculiar 
to it, some of which are very elegant and beautifully finished. 
They are often ornamented with various devices burnt in on the 
handles. 

Building, — In the building art, the Malagasy, as a whole, have 
made but little advance beyond constructing the small and 
simple dwellings required by a semi-civilised people. Except 
in the central provinces, the houses are constructed almost 
entirely of vegetable materials, and without any metal fasten- 
ings, all being tied together with tough, fibrous plants. 

Canoes and Boats. — Water-carriage is largely made use of on 
the rivers and coast lagoons. The native canoe is made of the 
hollowed-out trunk of a tree, chiefly the varbngy {Calophyllum 
inopkyllmn), and some of the canoes are forty feet long, with 
about three feet beam. On the south-east coast, a native boat, 
called sdry, is used. This is a built boat of planks, but no iron 
is used in its construction, everything being tied together by the 
wire-like fibre of the anivona palm, while the holes are plugged 
by tree-nails of hard wood. The seams are caulked with strips 
of bamboo, and loops of the same material form rowlocks for 
the larger oars. The seats pass right through the sides, and 
thus stiffen the whole, and bind it together, for there are no ribs 
or framework. These boats rise up at the stem and stern, and 
will carry fifty people, or a large quantity of goods. They are 
used for going out to the shipping through the heavy surf, where 
no canoe could possibly venture. These ingeniously made boats 
have evidently been in use for a considerable period, as they are 
referred to by some of the earliest French books on Madagascar, 
written from 1 50 to 200 years ago. On the west coast outriggers 
are adopted, and canoes fitted with these and with sails venture 
out to sea in a very fearless way. The natives along that portion 
of the island are bold navigators, and until the early portion of 
this century, they were accustomed to make an annual piratical 



1 



DECORATIVE CARVING ON WOOD. 333 

expedition to the Comoro Islands, in which hundreds of canoes, 
carrying thousands of men, were employed. Most of these 
must, therefore, have been boats of considerable size and 
seaworthy properties. 

Products and Exports. — Besides rice, a number of roots and 
vegetables are also cultivated by the Malagasy, the manioc root 
or cassava forming a considerable portion of their food, as well 
as yams, sweet-potatoes, beans, millet, Indian-corn, &c. The 
sugar-cane is also cultivated, and in the warmer districts grows 
to a great size. A coarse sugar is made, but, except in the 
neighbourhood of the capital, the cane is chiefly used for the 
manufacture of a spirit called toaka. Coffee, spices, ginger, 
chillies, tobacco, indigo, hemp, and cotton are also grown, but 
not in large quantities. There is a considerable variety of fruit, 
many kinds being indigenous, as the banana and plantain, 
pine-apple, loquat, grape, citron, lemon, mulberry, raspberry, &c., 
and others introduced by Europeans, as the peach, mango, 
pomegranate, guava, and fig. 

It is, however, the opinion of some who are well qualified to 
judge of the matter, that the fertility of the soil of Madagascar 
as a whole has been overrated, and that it does not present as 
good a field as many tropical counties for European settlers. 
But bearing this in mind, there still is reason to believe that in 
many parts of the island the soil is capable of supplying many 
of the most valuable products of the tropical zone. Rice, sugar, 
coffee, and spices, silk, cotton and hemp, indigo and tobacco, 
might all be produced in practically unlimited quantities. At 
present, however, rice, sugar, vanilla, and coffee are the only 
articles out of this list which are grown for exportation. The 
cultivation of coffee is yearly increasing, and numerous small 
plantations have been formed along the shores of the east coast 
rivers by Creole traders. For several years past large quantities 
of gum-copal and indiarubber have also been exported, but 
owing to the reckless manner in which the trees supplying the 
latter have been cut down, it is feared that the whole trade will 



334 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

come to an end before long unless some steps are taken to 
remedy the evil. In the southern part of the island, a lichen, 
called orseille, which is valuable for dyeing, is collected in con- 
siderable quantities. Ebony and numerous hard and beautiful 
woods resembling teak, rosewood, and mahogany, are found in 
the forests, and are used for cabinet work, and in building, 
and also in making the parquetry flooring in the best class of 
houses. 

The most important item of export at present is cattle. 
The colonies of Mauritius and Bourbon derive their entire 
supply of beef from the fine humped oxen which are shipped 
by thousands from the eastern ports. In later times, however, 
the trade is leaving somewhat the eastern side of the island, the 
ships fetching the cattle from the north-west coast, owing to 
their greater cheapness in the Sakalava country. A consider- 
able trade has also sprung up between the south-west ports and 
Natal. Hides are sent down in large quantities from the interior, 
being dried and salted for exportation. The valuable woods 
found in the forests now also form an important article of 
trade. 



!b 



CHAPTER XVI , 

ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF LIFE IN 
MADAGASCAR. 

The comic element everywhere present — First experiences — Native dress — 
Borrowed garments — Christmas Day exhibitions — Interruptions at divine 
service — A nation of bald-heads — Native houses and their inmates — Recep- 
tions by Hova Governors — Native feasts — Queer articles of food — First 
attempts at speaking Malagasy — "Try a relative" — Transformations of 
Enghsh names — Biblical names — Odd names — English mistakes — The 
" southern " side of his moustache — Funeral presents — Church decoration 
— Offertory boxes — Deacons' duties. 

THIS world of ours would be but a dull place to live in if 
there was no room in it for humour and fun, and if we 
could not sometimes indulge in a good hearty laugh. But 
happily there is no spot on its surface where the elements of the 
comic and ridiculous are not present ; and Madagascar certainly 
forms no exception to the general rule. We hope, therefore, no 
one will be shocked at hearing that even in missionary experiences 
there is occasionally a decided element of the amusing, the odd, 
and the absurd ; anyhow, during several years' residence in this 
island most people come across a few curious experiences, and 
hear of a good many more ; and if all these could be re- 
membered and noted down, they would afford ample materials 
for more than one paper. This, however, is now an impossi- 
bility, but perhaps I may be able to recall enough to serve to 
while away a leisure half-hour ; and some of these reminiscences 
may perchance throw a side-light or two upon certain phases of 
native character and habits. 

One's first landing in Madagascar — especially if one has had 



336 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

no previous experience of a semi-civilised country — must, I 
think, strike most people as having some very comic aspects : 
the only partially clothed appearance of so many of the 
" natives " ; the often absurd mixture of European and other 
dress ; and the odd gibberish, as it seems to us, of an un- 
known language — all these tend to excite one's amusement. 
I vividly remember my first ride in a filanjana at Tamatave, 
and how I was in fits of laughter all the way from my 
lodging to the Battery ; the being carried in that fashion by 
men struck me then — I can hardly now understand why — as 
irresistibly comic. At that time — more than thirty years 
ago — gentlemen very often travelled from the coast to the 
capital in the long basket-like filanjana which is never used 
now, nor has been for a long time past, except by ladies and 
children. In one of these contrivances I came up myself in 
October, 1863 ; but I suspect few gentlemen would now care 
to run the gauntlet of the amusement and " chaff" they would 
excite by riding through Antananarivo in a similar conveyance. 
Yet even in 1873, the late Rev. Dr. Mullens also travelled up 
to Imerina in a lady's filanjana ; but it struck him at the time 
as rather ridiculous, for he said how it reminded him of one of 
Leech's pictures in Punchy of a London exquisite driving a very 
small basket carriage, and being saluted by a street gamin with 
the words, " Oh, Bill, here's a cove a-drivin' hisself home from 
the wash." 

I referred just now to the oddness of native dress, especially 
when only portions of European costume are used. One sees 
some absurd enough sights now and then, even at the present 
time, in Antananarivo, but these are nothing compared with the 
ridiculous combinations which often met one's view a few years 
ago. To see a company of native officers come up from the 
parade ground in all their variety of dress was a very mirth- 
provoking spectacle. If a hundred or two of men had been 
fitted out from an extensive old-clothes' shop, with the object of 
making every one different from every one else, it could hardly 




A HOVA OFFICER, MALAGASY ARMY 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 337 

have produced a greater variety or have had a more bizarre 
effect than was actually the case. All sorts of cast-off uniforms ; 
every kind and shape of hat, from the smartest to the shabbiest 
(the " shocking bad " not excepted) ; every imaginable civilian 
dress, policeman's, fireman's, &c. — all might be seen, and in the 
queerest combinations, often finished off by the commonest of 
green and red woollen comforters. The sharp observation of a 
friend of mine (of the Society of Friends) even detected in an 
Andohalo crowd the low-crowned " broad brims " once belonging 
to some good East Anglian Quaker farmers, and pronounced 
that they must certainly have often figured in the sedate pro- 
ceedings of " an Essex Quarterly Meeting." One of the richest 
points in these exhibitions was the extreme self-consciousness 
of the wearers of these wonderful suits, and their evident pride 
in their personal appearance, together with the serene conviction 
that they were cutting a great dash.^ 

In the earlier years of the residence of those of us who have 
lived here longest we can remember what curious notions our 
native friends and our house servants had about borrowing (with 
and without our leave) our clothes. Requests from the former 
to borrow one's best " go-to-meeting " suit to wear at weddings, 
either their own or that of some relative, or on other festive 
occasions, used to be very frequent ; and it took a good many 
refusals and a good deal of persistence before they could be got 
to understand that such loans were not congenial to our feelings. 
Our servants, however, did not always take the trouble to ask 
leave, but would borrow coat, trousers, or shirt ; and we 
occasionally had the pleasure of discovering portions of our 
own dress on the back of cook or house boy, as we sat at 
church, or on the way home. With new servants it was a 

^ It must, however, be said that a great improvement has taken place during 
the last few years in all these particulars, largely through the efforts of the English 
officers who have been engaged in training the Malagasy army. Most of the 
native officers are now dressed in neat and appropriate uniforms, and very many 
have a thoroughly soldierly bearing ; while the simple white uniform of the rank 
and file has replaced the cross-belts and loin-cloth which formed the sole dress 
of the common soldiers not many years ago. 

23 



338. MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

common thing to borrow a tablecloth as a lainba ; and 
more than once the mistress of the house has been horrified, 
as her attention has wandered a little from the eloquence of 
the preacher, to recognise the familiar pattern of her best diaper 
table-linen enfolding the form of one of her domestics sitting 
not far from her. It is well known, too, that some of our 
washerwomen have made quite a business of letting out shirts, 
trousers, &c., as well as various articles of female dress, belong- 
ing to their English clients, to native customers for Sunday 
wear, and so adding to the legitimate profits of their business. 
In such cases also, we have occasionally had the gratification of 
seeing at church how well our own garments have fitted native 
wearers of the same. 

In our congregations of a few years ago there was a 
primitive simplicity about dress which would rather astonish us 
nowadays. I well remember being amused by this one Sunday 
at the old Ambatonakanga chapel. In the middle of the 
sermon a little boy of three or four years old, and perfectly 
naked, came to the door and looked about to find his mother 
among the people closely crowded together on the matted floor 
of the building. Presently she noticed the little urchin, and 
taking his tiny lamba which lay beside her, she rolled it up 
into a ball and tossed it to him over the heads of her neigh- 
bours. The child quietly unfolded it and, wrapping it about 
him with all the dignity of a grown-up person, gravely marched 
to his place, without any one, I think, but myself taking any 
notice of the incident. On special occasions, however, our 
congregations used to turn out in gorgeous array, the ladies in 
silks and satins and wonderful head-dresses, and the men in 
black coats and pantaloons and " chimney-pot " hats ; so that 
it was for some little time quite impossible to recognise one's 
most intimate acquaintance in their .unaccustomed "get-up." 
Christmas Days were the chief of these high festivals ; and I 
well remember how, on my first Christmas Day in Antananarivo, 
I was utterly " taken aback " on entering the dark and dingy old 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 339 

chapel at Ambatonakanga to find such a transformation scene ; 
for instead of the clean white Idmbas, which did somewhat 
brighten up the place on ordinary occasions, my native friends 
seemed to be darker than ever in their dark cloth clothes, and 
utterly (and comically) uncomfortable in their unusual finery. 
A little before my arrival here European dress was much more 
commonly worn by the well-to-do Malagasy than was the case 
after the decease of Radama II., and the ladies' crinolines were, 
at more than one of our chapels, slipped off at the door and 
hung up on a nail outside in charge of one of the deacons. 
There were few raised seats in those days, and it was difficult to 
make the steel hoops, &c., lie comfortably or gracefully while 
their wearer was squatting on the floor. Then, of course, there 
was a considerable wriggling and contriving to get into them 
again, as the congregation dispersed, as I have witnessed on 
more than one occasion. Another curious sight as people left 
church used to be the taking off of smart pairs of boots, which 
gradually became too irksome to feet unaccustomed to such 
restraint, and were carried by their owners either in their hand 
or suspended to a stick over their shoulder. The wearer having 
sacrificed his (or her) feelings to genteel appearances during 
service-time, would again rejoice in freedom from convention- 
alities on the walk home. 

Native churches certainly deserve credit for reverence and 
general propriety of behaviour during divine service. In some 
newly formed congregations, however, curiosity occasionally gets 
the better of the proprieties ; thus my friend the Rev. J. Pearse 
was once interrupted in the middle of an earnest discourse by a 
woman who was determined to know whether he would not sell 
her a smart green sunshade he happened to have with him, 
and how much he wanted for it. And it was not without con- 
siderable effort and coaxing that the good lady was at length 
induced to defer her inquiries to a later period of the proceedings. 
During a tour to the south-east coast in 1876, I was preaching 
one Sunday afternoon in the centre of a village on the banks of 



340 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

the river Matitanana, and was a little confused, when about 
half through my address, by the old chief of the place 
coming forward to give me a fowl — which clucked and 
struggled most noisily in the process — and also a bottle of 
rum, which was handed up in full view of the audience. 
It was a little difficult to resume the thread of the dis- 
course. This, however, be it remembered, was in a heathen 
village. 

I was speaking just now of clothing — and of the occasional 
want of it — among the Malagasy. There are, however — but 
perhaps it would now be more correct to say there were — 
occasions happening now and then when even the natural 
covering of the body, the hair of the head, was not to be 
seen. At the decease of a Malagasy sovereign, one of the 
customs which have been enforced up to the death of Queen 
Rasoherina (in 1868) was, that every person, high and low, rich 
and poor, male and female (with a few exceptions in the case 
of the very highest personages in the kingdom), must shave the 
head. As may be supposed, the effect of this was most curious; 
one's most familiar native friends seemed totally altered and 
unrecognisable, for no hat or other head covering could be used. 
One of my brother missionaries wrote to me : " On Friday 
morning (April 3, 1868) the people presented a very strange 
spectacle. They looked as if they had been suddenly trans- 
formed into Hindoos ; we found a nation of bald-heads, some 
of them quite glossy. It was amusing to meet our friends, as 
in many cases we did not recognise them until they spoke to 
us. A man walked up into the town with me in the morning, 
and from his familiarity I conclude he was a man I had known 
very well ; but I did not find out who he was, and have not 
been able to recall his identity since. The strangest part of the 
business was that the clipping was all done at once, for on 
Friday morning the entire country round Antananarivo was 
was clean clipped, except some score or so of privileged 
Malagasy and the Europeans." At the decease of the late 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 341 

Queen Ranavalona II., however, this custom was not enforced; 
probably it will not be again revived. 

Native houses are not as a rule at all desirable places to stay- 
in. In the central provinces of Madagascar they are certainly 
dirtier and more uncomfortable than on the coast or in the 
forest regions, where the entirely vegetable materials employed 
— bamboo, traveller's-tree, or palm leaves and bark — and the 
greater dimensions, make the houses there very passable as 
temporary resting-places. But the clay or wooden houses of 
the Hova, Betsileo, and other interior tribes are almost always 
dirty and infested with vermin ; and " A Night with the Fleas," 
or with the rats, or the mosquitoes, or the pigs, or the poultry, 
or all of them put together, is one of the common experiences 
of Madagascar travelling. Fleas of extraordinary agility seem 
able to mount to the highest stretcher bedsteads it is convenient 
to use, and make night one long-continued attempt to ignore 
their ubiquitous presence. Rats descend from the roof and 
perform marvellous acrobatic feats over rafters and cords, play- 
fully running races over one's person and even one's face, with a 
loud squeaking and squabbling which rouses us up with a start 
in the few intervals of unconsciousness allowed by the lesser 
plagues. Mosquitoes often come in with a hum like a small 
swarm of bees, and unless one is provided with netting, make all 
attempts at sleep futile ; and even if the net has been carefully 
tucked around one, two or three stragglers often get in and 
make the net a very questionable benefit, as effectually keeping 
in some of the tormentors as it keeps out their companions. 
Pigs being often domiciled in the house, resent their exclusion 
on the night of your stay, and break through the slight barriers 
you put up against their entrance with a grunting defiance of 
your intrusion into their domains ; or if they do not get into 
the house, they will persist in settling down under it, as the 
floors are often raised above the ground. An equal maintenance 
of vested interests is shown by the fowls, who will not under- 
stand that you have engaged the apartments for your exclusive 



342 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

use, and again and again Will manage to get in to their accus- 
tomed corner, raising a terrible dust as you attempt to dislodge 
them. For, besides the dirt on the floors, and the blackened 
mats on the walls, old houses are also liberally provided with 
strings of soot hanging from the rafters, or from the rough upper 
story often formed in the roof. Such ornaments are considered 
by the Malagasy as an honourable distinction, a sort of cer- 
tificate of an old and long-established family. But they are 
rather inconvenient in case of a sudden gust of wind, or a heavy 
shower of rain, or in ejecting a persistent hen and chickens, as 
just mentioned. A plentiful sprinkling of soot-flakes on bedding 
and clothes, on tablecloth and provisions, is, of course, the 
result of any of these incidents in your stay in many a native 
house. 

In going about most parts of Madagascar we come now 
and then to some more important places, military stations and 
centres of districts, where Hova governors are stationed. These 
officials are usually very kind and hospitable, but it is sometimes 
very amusing to see the state and ceremony they keep up. The 
military force under their command is often very limited, and 
frequently it is impossible to get together any but a very small 
proportion of even the few soldiers they have at their disposal. 
But as soon as they hear of your approach (for it is considered 
courteous to send on word in advance), some of the subordinate 
officers are drawn up to receive you, together with as many 
soldiers as they can muster (often more officers than rank and 
file, e.g.y four officers and two soldiers). As soon as you make 
your appearance, a great many words of command are shouted 
out, all in English, or at least as near an approach to that 
language as they can manage ; the Queen is saluted, then the 
Prime Minister, then the governor at the place, and then the 
second in command, together with the playing of any music 
they have available and the beating of drums ; and not until 
then is it etiquette for your own presence to be recognised and 
for you to be welcomed. Coming into the rbva or government 



-m 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 343 

house, the governor gives you a hearty shake of the hand and, 
as soon as you are seated, commences a long and formal list of 
inquiries, which runs somewhat as follows : " Since you, our 
friends and relatives, have arrived, we ask you : How is Ranava- 
lomanjaka. Sovereign of the land? How is Rainilaiarivony, 
Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief? How is So-and-so, 
Secretary of State ? ^ How is the kingdom of Amb6himanga 
and Antananarivo ? How are the cannon ? How are the guns ? 
How are the Christians ? " &c., &c. (Often the queries are much 
more numerous, including any governor higher in rank than the 
questioner whom we may have recently seen ; and I remember 
that in going round the Antsih^naka province, a little two- 
pounder brass cannon at Amparafaravola was carefully inquired 
after. All these inquiries must be severally and gravely replied 
to, including assurances of the well-being of the cannon and the 
guns (muskets). 

Native feasts are often amusing occasions, sometimes being 
very lengthy and occasionally very noisy. I shall not soon 
forget one at Ankarana (in the Taimoro country) given in my 
honour. The dinner there was, I think, the longest, and certainly 
was the noisiest entertainment at which I have ever assisted. It 
consisted of the following courses : — ist, curry ; 2nd, goose ; 3rd, 
roast pork : 4th, pigeons and waterfowl ; 5 th, fowl cutlets and 
poached eggs ; 6th, beef sausages ; 7th, boiled tongue ; 8th, 
sardines; 9th, pigs' trotters; loth, fried bananas; nth, pan- 
cakes ; 1 2th, boiled manioc ; 13th, dried bananas ; and last, when 
I thought everything must have been served, came hunches of 
roast beef By taking a constantly diminishing quantity of 
each dish I managed to appear to do some justice to them all. 
The healths of the Queen, " our friends the two Foreigners," 
then those of the Prime Minister and chief officers of State were 
all drunk twice over, all followed by musical (and drum) honours. 
As already remarked, it was a very noisy occasion, for there was 
a big drum just outside in the verandah, as well as two small 
^ Other chief officers of Government are occasionally mentioned. 



344 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

ones, with clarionets and fiddles, and these were in full play- 
almost all the time. Then the room was filled by a crowd of 
inferior officers and servants, and the shouting of everybody to 
everybody else, from the governor downwards, was deafening. 
It was a relief when the two hours' proceedings came at last to 
a conclusion. 

A good deal might be said about the queer articles of food 
occasionally used by the Malagasy. Locusts, divested of their 
wings and legs and dried in the sun, are very largely eaten and 
may be seen in heaps in almost every market. Besides these, 
certain kinds of moths are also used for food, as well as the 
chrysalides of various insects, different species of beetle, and 
even some sorts of spiders ! I must confess, however, that my 
information as to these delicacies is all second-hand ! I could 
never bring myself to try these bonnes bouches^ so much 
esteemed by my native friends. 

A very fruitful source of amusement (to those who have had a 
longer knowledge of the language) is the unavoidable ignorance 
of Malagasy on the part of new-comers and the absurd mistakes 
arising therefrom. I fear that very often we say some shocking 
things in preaching and public speaking during the earlier years 
of our residence in the country ; that we say innumerable 
ridiculous things goes without saying ; and were it not that the 
Malagasy have not (at least so I think) a very quick sense of the 
ludicrous, and are also very tolerant to the mistakes foreigners 
make, our congregations must certainly during our early 
attempts be often convulsed with laughter. Very seldom, how- 
ever, do we see anything of the kind ; and I often think that old 
European residents see a vast deal more that is absurd in the 
attempts of newer arrivals than do the Malagasy themselves. A 
venerable missionary, deservedly honoured especially in connec- 
tion with the re-establishment of the L,M.S. Mission in Mada- 
gascar, used every Sunday to thank God that He had given us 
another Day of Judgment ! using the word Jitsardna (judgment) 
for fitsahdrana (rest). On another occasion he, quite innocently, 



J 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 345 

used over and over again in a sermon a word which, as he pro- 
nounced it, meant something extremely offensive ; at last even 
the Malagasy could stand it no longer, and the women began to 
go out ; the preacher could not understand this and repeated 
the word with redoubled emphasis, adding, " Asa mivoaka, ry 
sakaiza'' ("Don't go out, friends") which they, all the more, 
would continue doing. Another brother informed his audience 
that God was the " midwife of all living things," using the word 
mampivelona (velona, living), which is only used in that sense, 
instead of mamelona, which means to support, nourish, or keep 
alive; the two prefixes having come to express two very different 
ideas. Those who were present at a Congregational Union 
Meeting a few years ago still remember with amusement how an 
earnest brother jumped up, and in a stentorian voice shouted 
out, " Solika sy ratio : tsy azo ampifangaroharoina izy roroa " {i.e.y 
" Oil and water : they cannot be mixed "), but by his putting 
the accent in solika in the wrong place he produced a most 
comical impression. But such anecdotes could be given almost 
to any extent, and similar mistakes need not be further dwelt 
upon. 

It is well known to all who have studied Malagasy that for a 
long time the " relative " form of the verb is one of the most 
puzzling features of the language. Several years ago, when the 
facilities for learning Malagasy were far less than they are now, 
some of us were much amused by the announcement made 
by a more recently arrived brother one Sunday morning, that 
he was " going to try a ' relative ' to-day." It was evidently 
still a very unfamiliar form to him. Another brother, after being 
much bothered and perplexed by the intricacies of this ^' pons 
asinoruni " of the language, decided upon a short and easy road 
out of the difficulty ; he determined to stick to the active and 
passive forms and to ignore the annoying " relative " altogether 1 
Another frequent source of queer mistakes is the difficulty, to 
Malagasy tongues, of pronouncing our English names. These 
are often so altered both in writing them and in speaking them 



346 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

that they become utterly unrecognisable by the uninitiated. 
Who, for instance, could detect under the form Mhiteritbri- 
nerina the simple English name " Mr. Thome " ? or in the 
word Itsdridzsaonina, the name of " Richardson " ? The names 
" Briggs " and " Jukes " and " Sims " are less altered in their 
Malagasy forms, " Biringitra" '' Jbkitra" and " Slvtpitra" but 
are still funny enough. Our distinctive titles of respect, Mr., 
Mrs., and Miss, are very difficult for the Malagasy to distin- 
guish ; and so " Miss Craven " becomes " Misitera Giravy " ; and 
" Craven," " Graham," and " Graves " can hardly be recognised 
as having any difference ; while " Wilson " and " Wills " are 
continually confounded together. I well remember how an- 
noyed my wife was, during our early time of residence at 
Ambohimanga, by the native pastor inquiring for me as 
" James." He had heard my wife address me thus, and there- 
fore concluded that it was the proper way for him to speak of 
me. The Malagasy have no exact equivalent for our Mr., Mrs., 
&c., for their name-prefixes Ra- and Andrian- are inseparable 
parts of their proper names. Official names also suffer curious 
transformations ; thus " bishop " becomes " besbpy " (lit., " much 
soup ") and " besbmpy" while in Betsileo it figures as " besbfina " 
(lit, " great eared " !). Strangely too, not only are Episcopalian 
clergymen all styled '' besopy" but their adherents also are 
distinguished from other Christians by the same name ; each 
and all are " bishops." In the same way, also, students at the 
College are called " kolej'y" and scholars are called " sekbly " ; 
they are themselves colleges and schools ! The French Resi- 
dent soon became known in the country districts as resian- 
ddnitra, which, literally translated, would mean " conquered in 
heaven " ! The name of the famous prime minister of Prussia, 
Prince Bismarck, has actually become a Malagasy word as an 
equivalent for cunning, craft, in the form of bizy : " manao bizy " 
is " to act craftily." This phrase originated in the time of the 
Franco-Prussian war, when the fame of Bismarck first reached 
this country. 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 347 

While speaking of words introduced by Europeans into the 
Malagasy language, a word or two may be said about other 
proper names, chiefly Scriptural ones, which have become 
thoroughly naturalised here. Many of these have taken 
curious forms, and this chiefly arises from the fact that oral 
instruction came first, some time indeed before these Bible 
names had to be printed. It would appear as if the first 
missionaries, in conversing with the Malagasy about the Saviour 
of the world, had very naturally spoken of Him by the same 
name, pronounced in the same way, as that which they and all 
English-speaking peoples use. They apparently did not con- 
sider what would be the most correct form of this sacred name, 
as well as of other names, that is, the nearest representation of 
their Greek originals. And so the English form " Jesus Christ " 
came to be '^ Jesosy Kraisty " in Malagasy, a tolerably close 
reproduction of our pronunciation of it ; while ^^ Jeso Kristo " (or 
" leso Kristo " would no doubt have been more correct. In the 
Revised New Testament, ''Kristy" has been substituted for 
Kraisty, but the older pronunciation holds its own. In some 
of the books formerly issued by the Jesuit Mission, the French 
pronunciation of the Redeemer's name was phonetically repro- 
duced thus, ''Jeso-Kry " ! but in their later publications the 
spelling of the sacred name has been approximated to that 
employed in Protestant books. Other curious words which have 
now become naturalised in Malagasy are Jews (not " Jew "), 
written ''Jiosy" and pronounced exactly like "juice"; and 
Gentiles (not " Gentile "), written " Jentilisa" ; so that the Mala- 
gasy speak of one Jews, and of one Gentiles ! 

Many English names have become naturalised among the 
Malagasy, especially the names of some of the missionaries 
resident among them. Thus we find Rajaonsona (Mr. Johnson), 
Raoilisona (Mr. Wilson), and Rasoelina (Mr. Sewell). On one 
occasion a missionary was conducting service at a country 
chapel, and at the close was requested to baptise an infant. On 
asking the name of the child, he was startled and not a little 



348 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

confused by the parents giving his own name (Christian and 
surname included) as the one he was to give to the young 
neophyte. One of the oddest names I have heard of is Rade- 
boka, which I am assured was taken from the title of the " day- 
book " which the parents had seen in the Hospital ! Another 
odd name is Ramosejaofera, in which we have, first the native 
name prefix Ra, then the French " monsieur^' altered to mose^ 
and finally the native name Jaofera. An absurd mistake arising 
from ignorance of Malagasy is perpetuated on the title-page of a 
Malagasy vocabulary published in England some years ago, but 
prepared by three young native officers, one of whom has been 
for several years past governor of Tamatave. The English 
editor apparently intended to describe it as " a book (Mai. boky) 
written by Rabezandrina " and his companions ; instead of 
which it reads, " Boka no anarany Rabezandrina^' &c., 8z:c., 
which is literally, " Lepers are the names of Rabezandrina," &c. 
The three authors were long known to some of us as " the three 
lepers." 

But it is not the Malagasy only who make absurd mistakes 
about names unfamiliar to them. It is known to many in 
England who have friends in Madagascar that the name by 
which we missionaries and other foreigners are designated 
by the natives here is "Vazaha." But a worthy minister in 
England, who had got hold of the term, slightly mistook its 
exact meaning ; and, supposing it to be the name of a division 
of the Malagasy people, he gravely informed his hearers at a 
public meeting that " the Vazaha are a tribe in Madagascar who 
are still but imperfectly acquainted with the Gospel ! " Many 
native customs strike us as very odd, and doubtless not less so 
do many of our customs appear to the Malagasy. Thus they 
are accustomed to employ the points of the compass in speaking 
of the positions of things in the house, where we should say, " to 
the left " or " to the right," or " in front of you " or " behind 
you." One of my brother missionaries was once dining with 
a native friend, and while eating some rice, a portion happened 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 349 

to adhere to his moustache. His host politely called his 
attention to the circumstance, and on my friend wiping the 
wrong side, his entertainer cried, " No, no ! it's on the southern 
side of your moustache ! " It sometimes takes a little time 
for our Malagasy friends to understand our ways. Thus I 
remember that when living at Ambohimanga we were visited 
one day by an old friend who happened to be then staying at 
the ancient capital. After a little conversation my wife brought 
out a good-sized plum-cake, and cutting a slice or two offered it 
to him. To her great astonishment he quietly took — not a 
slice — but, the whole of the cake ! and commenced eating it. 
But finding himself, after a little time, rather embarrassed by its 
quantity, and that it was a good deal more than he could then 
comfortably manage, he gradually stowed it away in his pockets, 
remarking that his children would like it We altered our way 
of handing cake to native friends from that date. 

The native custom of giving and expecting bits of money on 
all imaginable occasions seems very odd to Europeans. At 
births and marriages, at deaths and funerals, when ill or when 
getting better, at the New Year, when building a house or when 
constructing a tomb, when going on a journey or on returning 
from one, in times of joy or in times of sorrow — at each and all 
of them these wretched little bits of cut-money are expected 
from visitors. It is true that at funerals a return is made in the 
shape of presents of beef; and the solemnities of death and 
mourning are mixed up with the — to us — very incongruous 
elements of the slaughter-house and the butcher's-shop. But if 
one leaves before the oxen are killed, a present of poultry 
instead of beef is made ; and I have more than once come 
home from a funeral, or, at least, from the preliminary " lying- 
in-state," with a goose or a duck dangling from the poles of 
my palanquin. 

Some curious things are seen by those who travel much about 
Madagascar in the way of church decoration. (I am here, it 
should be said, speaking almost exclusively of buildings erected. 



350 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

by congregations in connection, at least nominally, with the 
L.M.S.) When it is remembered that these number more than 
1,200, and are scattered over a very wide extent of country, 
some missionaries having as many as seventy, eighty, or ninety of 
these under their nominal charge, it will be clear that to only a 
very small proportion of them can he give any personal atten- 
tion or advice as to their construction or adornment. As it is, 
it is only in the case of the villages nearest to his station, and 
here and there at important centres, that an English missionary 
can do much to guide and advise country church builders. The 
majority of village churches are therefore entirely the product of 
native skill, and their decoration the outcome of native taste. 
In many cases, especially in some of the districts nearest to 
Antananarivo, the village churches are models of what such 
places should be ; and with their glass windows, their neatly 
coloured interiors, and well-made platform pulpits — sometimes 
elaborate structures of massive stonework — they do credit to the 
simple country people who have built them. But it cannot be 
truthfully said that the majority of Madagascar village churches 
are of this kind. By far the greater number of them are rough 
structures of clay walls with sun-dried brick gables and thatched 
roofs ; and their only furniture a raised platform of earth or 
brick, with a rough table, serving both for pulpit and for the 
Communion, a clumsy form or two for the singers, a few dirty 
mats on the floor, some lesson-sheets on the walls, and perhaps a 
blackboard for every-day school use. There is certainly no fear 
at present of the majority of our congregations being led astray 
by aestheticism in religious buildings or worship. 

But frequently there are at the same time some attempts at 
decoration, and these are often very incongruous and occasion- 
ally highly comical (though doubtless unintentionally so). In a 
little church away north, and otherwise very neatly finished, is a 
band of ornament round the walls which is exactly like the 
figures on an ace-of-clubs card, and has probably been copied 
from this. In other places figures of officers and soldiers 



ODD AND CURIOUS EXPERIENCES OF MALAGASY LIFE. 35 1 

marching and even fighting are prominent; in others are seen 
sportsmen firing at impossibly big birds perched on trees ; in 
others again (as in the former Antsahamanitra church at 
Ambohimanga) a large tree is conspicuous behind the pulpit, 
bearing tremendous pumpkin-like fi'uits. (In this same church, 
however, there were also some very tastefial groups of flowers 
painted on the keystones of the window arches.) In the church 
at Vohipeno (Matitanana) I remember that the front of the 
pulpit was decorated in the following way : part of the space 
was occupied by a picture of a European ship with two masts ; 
the other part had a church with a tall tower and spire ; over 
these was the legend, " Hoy izay tompony ity trano ity : Mata- 
hora " (" Says the lord of this house : Fear ") ; and there were 
also four birds and a coloured border. Figures of clocks are 
frequently seen, and also those of a spear and shield, whether 
with any reference to " the shield of faith " and other Christian 
armour, I cannot say. It is worthy of note that no example of 
symbolism or sacred monograms or emblems has ever come 
under my notice, although passages of Scripture are now not 
unfrequently painted on the walls of village churches. Trees 
with fruit and flowers, often showing some taste, are seen in 
many places ; and in one or two places a very effective decora- 
tion has been formed by painted sprays of leaves or flowers 
scattered over the wall, giving the effect of a simple diaper or 
wall-paper pattern. 

During a tour I took in 1874 round the Antsihanaka 
province with Dr. Mullens and Mr. Pillans, we were much 
amused by the variety of the receptacles used at the doors 
of the village churches for the weekly offerings of the congrega- 
tions. In one district old sardine tins were the favourite article 
employed ; further on we found that Morton's jam tins were most 
in vogue ; while in yet another district old tin flasks formerly 
filled with gunpowder were in greatest request for the purpose. 

In certain Malagasy village churches — not very many, we 
should hope — some very curious additions to the ordinary 



352 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

furniture have been seen by occasional visitors. The wish of 
the late Queen that her subjects should worship the true God 
was in many places interpreted by petty officials as giving 
them authority to force the attendance of the people, and to 
punish them if they were negligent. The command, " Compel 
them to come in," was, in fact, often very literally carried out. 
Travelling down to the Betsileo province on one occasion, Dr. 
Davidson, while stopping for his mid-day meal at a country 
chapel, noticed a good-sized stone near the door, the object of 
which much exercised his mind. On inquiring the use of this 
stone, he was told that if the people were negligent of the 
" means of grace " and did not attend service regularly, they 
were seized and obliged to carry the stone to the top of a 
neighbouring hill and down again, to punish them for their 
sins and remind them to be more diligent in future. Another 
kind of penance used to be enforced at Tsiafahy : people who 
were irregular in attendance at chapel were obliged to creep on 
their hands and knees round the fdhitra or ox-fattening pen in 
the village, as a punishment for inattention to their religious 
duties. At a country chapel in the Friends' District, Mr. H. E. 
Clark saw, on one occasion, a deacon sitting at the door with 
a handful of small pebbles. When this official noticed any one 
in the congregation asleep, or inattentive, or irreverent, he threw 
a pebble at the offender to rouse him up, or as a gentle reminder 
to be more careful.^ 

Much that is amusing might be noted with regard to native 
preaching : odd illustrations, strange misapprehensions and mis- 
applications of Scripture, curious answers to questions about 
Biblical subjects, &c. ; but enough has, I hope, here been said to 
justify my remark at the commencement of this paper, that the 
monotony of our daily routine is frequently enlivened by curious 
and comic occurrences, and that, together with the more serious 
duties of our work, there is often "a decided element of t 
amusing, the odd, and the absurd " in our life in Madagascar. 

^ It need hardly be said that all true missionaries utterly repudiate : 
denounce all such ways of promoting Christianity. 



I 



\ 




CHAPTER XVII, 

THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR IN CON- 
NECTION WITH THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE 
ISLAND, WITH NOTICES OF THE EXTINCT FORMS OF 
ANIMAL LIFE OF THE COUNTRY. 

General characteristics of mammalian fauna — Remarkable difference to that of 
Africa — An ancient island — Wallace's " Island Life " — Oriental and Australian 
affinities — Vegetable productions — Botanising in Madagascar — Three-fourths 
of flora endemic in the island — Three different regions described by Mr. 
Baron — Floral beauty — Orchids — The Eastern Region — The Central Region 
— The Western Region — Extinct forms of animal life — Grandidier's dis- 
coveries — Geolog)' — Huge lemuroid — Link between apes and lemurs — Small 
hippopotamus — The ^pyornis — Crocodiles — Enormous terrestrial lizard — 
Primaeval Madagascar, 

Section I. : General Characteristics of the Malagasy 
Mammalian Fauna. 

BEFORE describing the Malagasy animals, something must 
be said about the peculiarities of the fauna of the island 
taken as a whole. 

A large extent of country in Madagascar is covered with 
forest, a belt of which, broad in some places and narrow in 
others, is believed to surround the island in an almost unbroken 
line ; while there is, in addition to this, a considerable tract of 
country, less densely wooded, occupying much of the western 
and southern plains. Here, then, there appears to be a con- 
genial habitat for a vast number of living creatures — birds, 
reptiles, and arboreal mammals — in the thousands of square 
miles of woods, which cover not only a great portion of the 

24 353 



354 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

warmer coast region, but also the eastern slopes of the elevated 
interior highlands. 

From these circumstances, as well as from the variety of 
other physical conditions prevailing in the country — mountains 
and open downs, cool interior highlands and sultry tropical 
plains, fertile river valleys and (in the south-west) arid deserts — 
it might be supposed that Madagascar, situated, as it is, almost 
entirely within the tropics, would be abundantly filled with 
animal life. But it is not so, at least, not nearly to such an ex- 
tent as one would expect, and a stranger crossing the forests for 
the first time is always struck with their general stillness and 
the apparent scarcity of animal life along the route. The fauna 
of the country does, it is true, include some most interesting and 
exceptional forms of life, but it is almost as remarkable for what 
is omitted in it as for what it contains. Not only so, but from 
the position of the island with regard to Africa^being separated 
from it by a sea only 230 miles wide at its narrowest part, a 
distance further reduced by a bank of soundings to only 160 
miles — one would also suppose that the fauna of the island 
would largely resemble that of the continent. But it is remark- 
ably different : whole families of the larger mammalia are 
entirely absent ; there are no representatives of the larger 
felines, no lions, leopards, or hyaenas ; none of the ungulate 
order, except a single species of river-hog, sole relative here of 
the hippopotamus,! no rhinoceros or buffalo ; and there is no 
zebra, quagga, or giraffe, or any of the numerous families of 
antelope which scour the African plains. There is no elephant 
browsing in the wooded regions of Madagascar, and, stranger 
still, there are no apes or monkeys living in its trees. The few 
horses and asses existing in the island are of recent introduction 
by Europeans ; even the humped cattle, which exist in immense 
herds, are not indigenous, but have been brought at a somewhat 

* There was, however, formerly a small species of Madagascar hippopotamus, 
apparently only recently extinct, for its bones are found in a sub-fossil state, 
will be noticed more fully further on. 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 355 

remote period from Africa ; and the hairy fat-tailed sheep and 
the goats, as well as the swine and dogs found in Madagascar, 
are all of foreign introduction. 

But notwithstanding all that, the zoological sub-region, of 
which Madagascar is the largest and most important portion, is 
pronounced by every naturalist who has studied it to be one of 
the most remarkable districts on the globe, bearing, says Mr. 
Alfred R. Wallace, " a similar relation to Africa as the Antilles 
to Tropical America, or New Zealand to Australia, but possess- 
ing a much richer fauna than either of these, and in some 
respects a more remarkable one even than New Zealand.^ The 
Madagascar fauna is very deficient in many of the orders and 
families of the mammalia, only six out of the eleven orders 
being represented,^ but some of these, especially the Lemuroida 
among the Quadrumana, the Viverridae among the Carnivora, 
and the Centetidae among the Insectivora, are well represented 
in genera and species. 

No less than forty distinct families of land mammals are 
represented in Africa, only eleven of which occur in Mada- 
gascar, which also possesses four families peculiar to itselfs 

^ The whole surface of the globe is divided b}^ Mr. Wallace into six zoological 
" regions," in each of which broad and clearly marked distinctions are shown to 
exist in the animal life as compared with that of the other great divisions. Each 
of these regions is again divided into '* sub-regions," Madagascar and the neigh- 
bouring islands forming the " Malagasy Sub-region " of the " Ethiopian Region," 
the latter being a zoological division which includes Africa south of the Tropic of 
Cancer, together with its islands, excepting the Cape De Verde group. The 
following diagram shows the geographical position of each region, and, to a 
considerable extent, their relation to each other : — 

Nearctic Pal^arctic 



Ethiopian Oriental 
Neotropical | 

Australian 

^ These are, Primates, Cheiroptera, Insectivora, Carnivora, Ungulata, and 
Rodentia. 

3 Cheiromydae (one genus and one species, the Aye-aye) ; Indrisidae (three 
genera and ten species and varieties) ; Lemuridse (six genera and twenty-eight 
species and varieties) ; and Crj'ptoproctidse (one genus and one species, 
the Fosa). 



?56 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 



The following is a list of all the genera of mammalia as yet 
known to inhabit the island, together with the number of 
species belonging to each, these latter, including well-marked 
varieties, now amounting to 107 : — 



Primates. %''^\^^^f 
Sub-order Lemiiroida. 

Propithecus 8 

Avahis i 

Indris i 

Lemur 15 

Hapalemur 2 

Lepidolemur 4 

Phaner i 

Mirza i 

Cheirogaleus 5 

Cheiromys i 

Cheiroptera. 

Pteropus 2 

Cynonycteris i 

Phyllorhyna i 

Vesperus i 

Vesperugo 3 

Scotophilus 2 

Vespertilio i 



Species and 
Varieties, 

Miniopterus 2 

Emballonura i 

Trisenops 2 

Taphozous i 

Nyctinomus 6 

Rhinopoma i 

Myzopoda i 

Carnivora. 

Fossa I 

Viverricula i 

Cryptoprocta i 

Felis I 

Galidia 5 

Eupleres i 



Species and 
Varieties. 

Oryzorictes 5 

Centetes i 

Hemicentetes 3 

Echinops i 

Ericulus 2 



Insectivora. 

Sorex 

Microgale 

Geogale 



RODEXTIA. 

Eliurus 

Hypogeomys 

Nesomys 

Brachytarsomys ... 

Hallomys 

Schoenomys 

Pseudomyoxodon 
Brachyuromys ... 

Ungulata. 
Potamochoei"us ... 



Hippopotamus (sub-fossil) 



We have here a total of 46 genera and 107 species and 
varieties of mammals, many of the genera being peculiar to 
Madagascar. All the species are peculiar, except, perhaps, 
some of the wandering bats. 

The assemblage of animals above noted is remarkable, and 
seems to indicate a very ancient connection with the southern 
portion of Africa before the apes and all its present ungulates 
and felines had entered it, no doubt from the north. The 
presence of nearly a hundred species of mammals is a certain 
proof in itself that the island has once formed part of, or has 
been very closely connected with, a continent ; and yet the 
character of these animals is altogether different from the 
assemblage now found in Africa or in any other existing 
continent. A very slight acquaintance with the present fauna 
of Africa would at first sight prevent us from thinking that 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 357 

Madagascar could ever have been united with it ; and yet, as 
the tigers, the bears, the tapirs, the deer, and the numerous 
squirrels of Asia are equally absent, there seems no possibility 
of its having ever been united with that continent. Let us 
then see to what groups the mammalia of Madagascar belong, 
and where their probable allies must be looked for. 

It will be seen from the tabular list already given that the 
most prominent feature of the Madagascar mammalian fauna 
is the lemurian, the ten genera and thirty-nine species and 
varieties which are here represented forming about four-fifths 
of the whole mammalian population of the island. The lemurs, 
which are the most lowly organised of the Quadrumana, and 
probably also the most ancient animals of that order, are still 
found scattered over a very wide area, but they are nowhere so 
abundant as in Madagascar, having doubtless been elsewhere 
largely exterminated in the struggle for existence by the later 
developed monkeys and apes. Straggling and disconnected 
examples are, however, found, ranging from West Africa, where 
there are two endemic forms, to Southern India, Ceylon, and 
Malaysia. The Lemuroida of these regions seem to hold their 
own by their nocturnal and arboreal habits, being mostly found 
in dense forests. The African forms of lemur seem not more 
closely allied to those of Madagascar than are the Asiatic 
forms, so that it appears probable that all these animals are but 
the remains of a once widely-spread and much more numerous 
group. This is confirmed by the fact that lemurian animals 
once inhabited North America and Europe, and possibly the 
whole northern hemisphere, as their remains have been found 
in Eocene deposits of the Jura and of South-west France, and 
in the Upper Eocene of Paris. 

The twenty-five species of Bats need not detain us at this 
point, as they are all, as might be supposed from their powers 
of flight, more or less nearly allied to forms found in other parts 
of the world. 

We then come to the Carnivora, which are represented by a 



358 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

peculiar jaguar-like animal, the Cryptoprocta, which forms in 
itself a distinct family and has no near allies in any other part 
of the globe, and by nine civets, belonging to genera peculiar 
to this country. " Here we first meet with some decided 
indications of an African origin, for the civet family is more 
abundant in this continent than in Asia, and some of the 
Madagascar genera seem to be decidedly allied to African 
groups." Although now almost confined to the Ethiopian and 
Oriental regions, the civets were abundant in Europe during the 
Miocene period. 

Coming to the next order, the Insectivora, we find them 
represented in Madagascar by two families, one of which — the 
shrews — is found over all the continents, but the other — the 
Centetidae — is all but confined to this island, none being found 
anywhere else on the globe except one genus in the West 
Indies, in Cuba and Hayti, " thus," says Mr. Wallace, " adding 
still further to our embarrassment in seeking for the original 
home of the Madagascar fauna." This group, however, is, like the 
Lemuroida, of high geological antiquity, and is found in numerous 
peculiar forms in various parts of the world, but in no equally 
limited area are so many distinct types found as in Madagascar. 

The Madagascar Rodents consist only of five rats and 
mice of endemic genera, one of which is said to be allied to an 
American genus ; but it is probable that in this order other 
species will still be discovered. 

As regards the last order, the Ungulata, this is represented 
in Madagascar by but one living species, a river-hog allied to 
an African species, and by an extinct form of hippopotamus. 
But, from the semi-aquatic habits of these animals and their 
powers of swimming, it appears probable that their presence in 
the island is explained by a former more close connection with 
the neighbouring continent.^ 

* For the substance, and in many sentences the wording, of the three 
preceding pages, I am indebted to those valuable works of Mr. Wallace, The 
Geographical Distribution of Animals^ chap, xi., vol. i., and Island Life, chap. xix. 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 359 

For a full discussion of the difficult problem of the deri- 
vation of this very particular fauna, I would refer the reader to 
Mr. Wallace's interesting work Island Life^ chap. xix. I can 
only here indicate in a very brief fashion the principal points 
which now appear pretty well established from a consideration 
of all the available facts. If we bear in mind the special and 
isolated character of many of the Madagascar birds, as well as the 
Asiatic affinities of some ; the peculiarities of the mammalian 
fauna, as just detailed ; the Oriental and American relation- 
ships of many of the reptiles ; and the Oriental, Australian, and 
even South American affinities of some of the insects ; and if to 
these facts we add the geological character of the island, and 
the now well-known conditions as regards the depths of the 
surrounding ocean, the following deductions may be fairly 
drawn : — 

Madagascar is a very ancient island geologically considered, 
and many of the animals now found here are very antique 
forms, survivals of a once much more widely extended fauna, 
which in early times was spread over the continents, but has in 
them become nearly or quite extinct through the introduction 
of other forms of animal better fitted to survive in the struggle 
for existence. In this great island, however, cut off from the 
fiercer competition of continental life, many of these earlier types, 
e.g.^ the Lemurs and the Centetidae, have held their own, and so 
Madagascar has become, to a certain extent, a kind of museum 
of ancient forms of life to be seen nowhere else on the globe. 
There can be no doubt that Madagascar had anciently a much 
closer connection with Africa than exists at present, and that 
from that continent most of its present fauna was derived, 
before, however, Southern Africa had received from the Euro- 
Asiatic continent most of its present characteristic animals. 
At the time when Madagascar was thus more closely connected 
with the continent, Southern Africa was probably a large conti- 
nental island, like Australia, separated from its northern portion 
by a shallow sea, now represented by the Sahara and the 



360 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Arabian deserts. About the same time also it is probable that 
numerous groups of islands, now represented only by still slowly 
sinking banks and atolls in the Northern Indian Ocean, brought 
Madagascar into much closer connection with South-eastern 
Asia, and so some of the Oriental and Australian affinities of 
its fauna are perhaps accounted for. And as for the likeness of 
some of its forms of life {e.g.^ the Centetidae among Insectivora, 
the Urania among butterflies, and some of the serpents and 
tortoises among reptiles) to the living creatures of still more 
distant countries, these are no doubt only remnants of a 
fauna once spread over all the intervening regions, but now 
found only in such widely separated islands as Cuba and 
Madagascar. 

It will be evident, therefore, that although the mammalian 
fauna of Madagascar consists, except in the case of some of the 
lemurs, chiefly of small and inconspicuous animals, many of 
these creatures are of exceptional interest to the zoologist, and 
throw no small light upon earlier conditions of life upon the 
earth. 

Having thus sketched the leading characteristics of the 
Madagascar Fauna, I proceed to give a brief outline of the 
Flora of the island, for the main facts of which I am indebted 
to a paper of my friend, the Rev. R. Baron, F.L.S., contri- 
buted in November, 1888, to the Jou7'nal of the Linnean Society 
— Botany?- 

Section XL : The Flora of Madagascar. 

The vegetable productions of the island are now tolerably 
well known to science, since the country has been explored by 
European botanists in many different directions. Its highest 
mountains have been ascended, its lakes and marshes crossed, and 
its encircling forests have been penetrated in a number of places ; 
and large collections of plants have been made at various times, 

* The Flora of Madagascar, with map showing Botanical " Regions." 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 36 1 

which have been described in the scientific journals of England, 
France, Germany, and Holland. By far the largest number of 
these have been collected and sent to England by Mr. Baron, 
who is at present the chief authority on the flora of Mada- 
gascar. 

In 1889 the number of plants from Madagascar which had 
been named and described was about 4,100, and these have 
since been increased to probably over 4,300. The south-western 
portion of Madagascar, and the lowlands of its southern part 
generally, are at present the least known as regards the botany, 
but every year sees some addition made to our knowledge 
of the island, and the blanks on the map are being rapidly 
filled up. 

Mr. Baron graphically describes his experiences in botanical 
collecting : — 

" Botanising in Madagascar, as those who have travelled in 
wild and uncivilised regions in other parts of the world will 
easily believe, is a totally different experience from botanising 
in England. Your collecting materials are carried by a native, 
who may be honest or not, in which latter case the drying paper 
will begin gradually and mysteriously to disappear, and the 
leather straps with which the presses are tightened will, one by 
one, be quietly appropriated. For a Malagasy bearer has a 
special weakness for leather straps, they being largely used for 
belts, so that both for the sake of your own comfort and the 
honesty of the men, the sooner you dispense with them the 
better. As for the dried plants themselves, they are secure 
from all pilfering ; for of what possible use or value they can 
be, it puzzles the natives to conceive. You might leave your 
collection in a village for a whole month, and you would find on 
your return that it was still intact. If, after the day's journey, 
you sit down in a hut to change the sheets of paper containing 
the specimens, the villagers will be sure to come in, and, stand- 
ing round in a circle, gaze at you in mute astonishment, turning 
over the plants so well known to them. After a few minutes* 



362 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

silent gaze, there will perhaps be a sudden outburst of amused 
laughter, or it may be a little whispering, which, if it were 
audible, would be something to this effect : ' Whatever in the 
world is the man doing ? ' or, ' What strange creatures the white 
men are ! ' Some of the people doubtless think that you are a 
kind of sorcerer. For these dried plants, whatever can you do 
with them ? you cannot eat them ; you cannot make them into 
broth ; you cannot plant them, for they are dead ; you cannot 
form them into bouquets or wreaths, for they are brown and 
withered. Is it surprising, then, if some of the natives think 
that you are dabbling in the black art, and that your plants, in 
the form of some strange and mysterious decoction, are to 
supply, it may be, a potent rain-medicine, or a love-philter, or a 
disease-preventing physic ? For among the natives themselves 
there are many herbal quacks, who, for a consideration, are able 
not only to prescribe for the cure, and even prevention, of 
disease, but also to furnish charms against fire or tempest, locusts 
or lightning, leprosy or lunacy, ghosts, crocodiles, or witches. 
The explanation which I have most frequently heard given, 
however, by the more intelligent of the natives as to the use 
of the dried plants, is that the leaves are intended to be 
employed for patterns in weaving. 

" It is not, then, the natives that you have to fear in regard 
to your collections of plants, it is the weather — it is those heavy 
showers that, unless protected with extreme care by waterproof 
coverings, succeed in soaking your specimens and your drying 
paper, so that you have occasionally to spend half the night in 
some dirty hovel in doing what you can, by the aid of a large 
fire, to save your collection from destruction." 

A large extent of country in Madagascar is covered with 
primeval forest. These woods are most extensive on the eastern 
side of the island, where they clothe the hills and the eastern 
slopes of the edge of the upper table-land, where the principal 
water-parting of the country, running north and south, is found. 
It is believed that the whole island is encircled by a belt of 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 363 

forest, but this statement still requires confirmation, although 
there is no doubt that there are extensive forests also on the 
western side. The eastern forest attains its greatest breadth in 
the north-east of Madagascar, a little north of the Bay of 
Antongil, where it is from 40 to 60 miles broad. Further south, 
however, it is much narrower, probably not averaging more 
than 25 miles in breadth. It has been calculated that in the 
whole island there is an area of 30,(X)0 miles of forest-covered 
country, or about one-eighth part of the total area. Besides 
dense forests, there is a large extent of country on the coast 
plains covered with scattered patches of wood and brush, so it 
will be easily seen how large a field there is in Madagascar for 
botanical research. 

This large extent of wooded country is, however, being 
diminished every year by the wholesale destruction of the 
forest in burning it for rice-planting, and it is grievous to see 
how recklessly it is cut down and destroyed for this and other 
more trivial reasons. The large concessions of forest land to 
European companies for timber-cutting and plantations also 
tend in the same direction, and unless some plan of forest 
conservation is soon effected, the beautiful woods, with most of 
their flora and fauna, will eventually disappear. 

Mr. Baron believes that the great bulk of the Madagascar 
plants have been already gathered, and so there are now 
sufficient data to enable a few general conclusions to be drawn 
as to the character and distribution of the flora. I will again 
quote from his paper to give these conclusions : — 

"The following figures will show at a glance the number 
of Natural Orders and genera of flowering plants represented 
(j in Madagascar as compared with those known throughout the 
world, according to Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantaruiw. — 

Total known in the World : Orders, 200 ; Genera, 7,569. 
„ Madagascar: „ 144; „ 970. 

The number of genera here given comprises those only that 



364 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

are indigenous to the island. If we include the numerous 
plants that have at one time or other been introduced, the total 
number of the genera would be probably raised to about 1,050. 

"Of the 4,100 indigenous plants at present known in 
Madagascar, about 3,000 (or three-fourths of the flora), are, 
remarkable to say, endemic. Even of the Gramineae and 
Cyperaceae about two-fifths of the plants in each order are 
peculiar to the island. There is but one natural order confined 
to Madagascar, the Chlaenaceae, with twenty-four species, which, 
however, Dr. Baillon places under Ternstrcemiaceae. Of ferns 
more than a third are endemic, and of orchids as much as five- 
sixths, facts which in themselves are sufficient to give a very t 
marked individuality to the character of the flora. 

"Of the 4,100 known plants, there are : — 

Dicotyledons 3,492 

Monocotyledons 248 

Acotyledons ^ 360 

4,100 

" The following list shows the number of species in the 
Orders most largely represented, and their percentage of the 
total flora {i.e,^ of the 4,100 plants mentioned above) : — 

No. Per cent. 

Leguminosae 346 8*4 

Filices 318 78 

Compositae 281 6-9 

Euphorbiaceje 228 5"6 

Orchideae 170 4"i 

Cyperaceae 160 3-9 

Rubiaceae I47 3'6 

Acanthacece 131 3'2 

Graminece 130 3'2 

" The Palms and Asclepiads are as yet imperfectly known. 
Of the former only eighteen are described, although the island 

^ '• This includes only the Filices, Equisetaceae, Lycopodiaceas, and Selagi- 
nellaceae. The remaining Acotyledonous Orders are as yet very imperfectly- 
known. Of Mosses about 250 have been described, and of Rhizophoreas 5." 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 365 

undoubtedly- possesses a large number. Many Asclepiadaceous 
plants have been collected, but the majority of them are still 
lying unnamed in various European herbaria. The number of 
endemic genera now reaches about 148." ^ 

Many interesting particulars are given by Mr. Baron as to 
these endemic genera, but these must be omitted in this place, 
with one exception. Leptol(£na pauciflora, belonging to the en- 
demic order Chlaenaceae, is, says Mr. Baron, " a hard-wooded tree, 
from the trunk and branches of which, at a certain season of the 
year, there is a ceaseless dropping of water, sufficient indeed to 
keep the ground quite damp. This is caused by a number of 
hemipterous insects crowding together in a slimy liquid. May 
this afford an explanation of the similar well-known phenome- 
non exhibited by the Tamai-caspi, or Rain-tree, of the Eastern 
Peruvian Andes ? " 

As regards the distribution of the vegetable life of Mada- 
gascar, Mr. Baron sees sufficient reason to divide the island 
into three Regions, and he gives a number of figures and com- 
parisons to justify his conclusions. Roughly speaking, these 
three Regions, which he calls Eastern, Central, and Western 
respectively, correspond closely to the (i) eastern side of the 
island, east of the crest of the mountain range which forms the 
main water-parting of the country ; (2) the central portion, 
including the upper table-land, consisting chiefly of gneiss and 
other crystalline rocks ; and (3) the western side of the island 
including the extensive coast plains, comparatively level, on the 
west and south-west. 

The great bulk of the plants common to the three Regions 
are widely-spread tropical species, while few plants reach right 

* " A few other endemic genera have been described since this paper was 
written, and require to be added to the list given above. They are : Santalina (i) 
under Rubiace^e, Menahea (i) in Asclepiadese, Pcriestcs (i) and Camarotea (i) in 
Acanthace^, and Leiicosalpa (i) in Scrophulariacese. It may also be added that 
since the publication of the above about 160 new plants (including 31 species of 
Crotort) have been described from Madagascar, bringing the total number of 
species known in the island (excluding the mosses and some other of the lower 
cryptogams) up to 4,260." 



366 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

over the island from east to west. Among these few is the Rofia 
palm {Raphia ruffia) ; while a fern {Gleichenia dichotona) is per- 
haps the commonest and most widely-spread specimen in the 
whole island. 

An examination of the list of plants found in the three 
Regions shows a wide difference between the floras of the 
Central Region and of the two others to the east and west ; and 
this is not to be wondered at when it is remembered that the 
Central Region has a great elevation above the sea (from 3,000 
to nearly 9,000 feet). But it is not so easy to account for the 
great difference between the floras of the Eastern and Western 
Regions, seeing that they have the same position, as regards 
latitude, and do not differ much in height above the sea 
(although the western side of the island is decidedly hotter). 
Mr. Baron gives a very simple reason for this, pointing out that 
the elevated central region of the island, running north and 
south, is no doubt of very great antiquity, reaching possibly 
from the Palaeozoic era, and has therefore always formed a 
barrier (except at the south) between the floras of the Eastern 
and Western Regions. " The floras therefore, even if they were 
formerly similar, which is doubtful, have had abundance of time 
to become differentiated in character ; and if they were originally 
different, they have been kept, by the existence of the mountain 
barrier, distinct to the present day." 

As regards floral beauty in Madagascar, all who have 
travelled much in the island will agree with the statements 
of Dr. A. R. Wallace in his Malay Archipelago and Tropical 
Nature, that, contrary to the common opinion, tropical countries 
and tropical forests are not rich in flowers, although they are 
unrivalled for luxuriance of foliage. Madagascar is no excep- 
tion to this rule, for it possesses comparatively few plants having 
beautiful flowers. There is nothing to compare with an English 
meadow, with its clover and its buttercups and daisies, or with a 
field of poppies, or with the effects produced by gorse and broom 
and heather. Nor are there many flowering trees in the forests. 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 367 

I and any one expecting to see great numbers of beautiful flowers 
L there will be disappointed. There are, it is true, a considerable 
number of handsome flowers, both on the open downs and in the 
woods, but they do not occur, with some few exceptions, in large 
masses, so as to strike the eye, or to produce a distinct effect in the 
landscape.^ One of the most conspicuous flowers in the upper 
forest in the month of November is that of a liana {Strongylodon 
Cravenice), which has a stem about as thick as a one-inch rope, 
and spikes of creamy-yellow flowers set pretty closely on the 
main stem. These spikes are from 10 to 16 inches in length, 
each containing from 40 to 60 large flowers growing closely 
together, so that they are very conspicuous in the forest, forming 
immense festoons of flowers, mounting to the tops of the highest 
treesi crossing from one tree to another, and shining almost 
golden in colour in the brilliant sunshine. 

The Orchids are a prominent feature in the woods near the 
east coast, especially several species of Angrceciim ; of these A. 
superbum is the most plentiful, while A. sesquipedale, with its 
long spur and large pure white flowers, is also very conspicuous. 
In the interior of the island there are several striking ground 
orchids ; one yellow, another brilliant scarlet, and another blue 
in colour. Among trees and shrubs which have the most hand- 
some flowers are species of Rhodolcena, Impatiens, Ixora, Stepha- 
notis, Poinciana, Astrapcea, Ipomcea, Kigelza, Combretuni, and 
others. 

A few particulars may be added as to the special characteris- 
tics of each of the three botanical Regions. 

The Eastern Region. — This is a comparatively narrow strip 
of country lying between the sea and the central highland, of 
the interior. It averages about 60 to 70 miles in breadth, and is 
about 900 miles long from north to south. It includes a littoral 
belt of grassy and wooded plains, with a series of lagoons stretch- 
ing in an almost continuous line for 300 to 400 miles ; then a 
tract of country with a wild confusion of rounded hills ; and 
^ See, however, Chapter IV., p. 72. 



368 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

thirdly, a series of two or three mountain ranges, running almost 
throughout the whole length of the island, and rising in the . 
western range to a height of about 4,500 feet above the sea. 
Facing the Indian Ocean, and meeting the vapour-laden south- 
east winds, which blow for the greater part of the year, this 
eastern side of Madagascar is naturally the moistest portion of 
the island, and its vegetation is accordingly most abundant. A 
large proportion of its surface is covered with dense forest, and 
there are innumerable patches of wood and bush where there is 
no continuous forest. 

The narrow littoral belt, with its attractive park-like scenery, 
has been made most familiar to English readers by descriptions 
of it in many books relating to Madagascar ; since that portion 
of it which extends between Tamatave and Andovoranto is 
traversed by almost all travellers to the capital. Its soft green 
turf, its clumps of trees and shrubs, and its lake scenery, 
make this portion of the journey a very pleasant experience. 
Among the most striking features of the vegetation here are the 
tall fir-like Casuarina^ or beef-wood tree, which grows in long 
lines mile after mile, near the shore ; several species of Pandanus^ 
or screw-pine ; the Indian almond ( Terminalia Catappa) ; the 
celebrated Tangena shrub {Tanghinia veneniferd), formerly used 
as an ordeal ; a species of fern-palm {Cycas Thouarsii\ from 
which a kind "of sago is obtained; occasional plantations of 
cocoa-nut palm, which, however, is not indigenous to the island ; 
and many others, including some of the most beautiful flowering 
trees already mentioned. The Orchids have been referred to 
above ; and besides these, among other noteworthy plants, is a 
species of pitcher-plant {Nepenthes), with pitchers 4 or 5 inches 
long, and the curious and beautiful lace-leaf plant {Ouvirandra 
fenestralis), which is, however, found also in streams in the 
Central Region. Bordering the riversides and in marshes, a 
gigantic Arum {Vthd) from 12 to 15 feet in height, with a large 
white spathe more than a foot in length, grows by thousands,, 
and is sure to attract attention. 




a 



k 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 369 

As one travels higher up the country, other trees and shrubs 
become prominent ; among these is a most elegant species of 
bamboo, which, with its curving stems and light-green clusters 
of leaves, gives quite a character to the scenery ; the celebrated 
Traveller's-tree (already described in Chapter I.) ; the Carda- 
mom ; the Rofia palm, with its enormously long leaves and 
feathery fronds ; and many others. 

With regard to the upper and forest-covered portion of the 
Eastern Region, Mr. Baron says that it is "remarkable for its 
great variety of plant forms, there being no single species, genus, 
or order of plants predominant over the rest, or which influences 
to any great degree the general physiognomy of the vegetation." 
For full particulars as to the most characteristic trees and plants 
the reader must be referred to Mr. Baron's paper ; suffice it to 
say here that there are many kinds producing valuable and 
beautiful timber, some of which are becoming important com- 
mercially ; others yield many useful products, as indiarubber, 
bark for dyes, gamboge, pepper, arrowroot, &c. As in most 
tropical forests, the numerous kinds of liana, from some not 
thicker than a stout thread to others as large as a ship's cable 
bind the trees together in an almost impenetrable tangle of 
cordage, through which it is most difficult to force a path. 

The Central Region. — As already stated, this second 
botanical region occupies the elevated table-land of the interior 
of Madagascar. Taken as a whole, the greater part of this 
region consists of bare, dreary, and desolate moorlands, with 
little verdure, except in the hollows between the hills, and in 
those valleys and plains, mostly the beds of ancient lakes now 
dried up, where rice is cultivated by the people. Trees and 
shrubs are few, except where a few patches of forest still remain ; 
and the moorlands and hills are covered with coarse, wiry, 
grey-brown grass. But for the usual bright skies and clear 
atmosphere, this part of Madagascar would be much more 
dreary and uninteresting than it really is. (For many aspects 
of this^part of the country, see Chapter IV.) One peculiarity 

25 



370 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

of this region is that its vegetation consists much more largely 
of herbs and small wiry plants than of trees and shrubs ; in fact, 
about three-fourths of the plants belong to the former class. 
Another peculiarity of the flora here is, as might be expected, 
its more temperate character than that of either of the other 
two regions. Palms and other tropical forms are rare, while, 
on the other hand. Heaths, Gentians, and plants of the orders 
Umbelliferae, Ranunculacese, and Crassulacese are plentiful, 
and such mountain forms as the Violet, the Geranium, and the 
Sundew, as well as the common bracken, the royal fern, and the 
male fern are found. Perhaps the most prominent trees in the 
Central Region are several species of Ficus, especially the 
Ambntana, with large glossy leaves, and the Aviavy, which are 
frequently seen in the old towns and villages of the interior 
provinces, and also the Nonbka^ the Vodra^ and the Addbo. 
Mr. Baron gives a list of sixty-three plants, only found on the 
slopes of the Ankaratra mass of mountains, all of which are 
endemic in Madagascar. 

The Western Region. — This part of the island is much less 
known than those included in the other two regions. With the 
exception of two or three mountain ranges, which appear to run 
in a very straight course for several hundred miles, this region 
largely consists of extensive level or slightly undulating plains, 
covered with coarse grass and patches of forest, beside the 
encircling belt of wood not many miles from the shore line. 
The heat is much greater on the western side of the island than 
on the eastern side, while the rainfall is much less, especially in 
the south-west, where a small extent of country is almost a 
desert from the scanty amount of rain it receives. The vege- 
tation here, therefore, is much less plentiful and luxuriant than 
on the eastern side of the island, and trees and shrubs are more 
restricted to the banks of rivers and streams. 

The most common trees and shrubs here are species of 
FicuSy Hibiscus^ Eugenia, and Weinmannia, and the Tamarind, j 
which grows to a large size, as does also the Mango, while the 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 37 1 

Rofia palm is found in large numbers. Three or four species 
of fan-palm {Hyphcene and Bismarckid) give a very distinct 
character to the scenery in many parts of the district. In the 
journal of a canoe voyage I made down the Betsiboka river 
some years ago, I find the following reference to these trees : 
" Here the lovely fan-palms became very numerous. At times 
we passed close to the banks, a tangled mass of bararata (a 
graceful bamboo-like grass) bending down into the river, and 
the tall columns of the palms standing up from the very edge 
of the water, with their graceful crowns of green fans sharply 
defined against the blue of the sky. Surely of all the thousands 
of beautiful things in this beautiful world, palms are among the 
most lovely, and the fan-palm not the least in this glorious 
family of trees. It was a perpetual delight to the eyes to watch 
them as we swept rapidly by the banks with the strong current, 
as one after another they passed us by as in a panorama." 

Another very noticeable tree is plentiful on the west coast, 
viz., the Baobab, which is remarkable for its enormous bulk of 
tru^k and smooth light-brown bark. Many species of Diospyros 
are found in the forests, from some of which ebony is obtained. 
Along the west coast, and especially on the shores of the 
innumerable bays and inlets of the north-west, the Mangrove is 
found in immense numbers ; while the most abundantly repre- 
sented Order in the Western Region is the Leguminosse, and 
next to that the Euphorbiaceae. 

A few words may be added as to the Relationship of the 
Madagascar Flora. Mr. J. G. Baker, of Kew, has shown that 
there is a close affinity between it and that of tropical Africa ; 
this is probably more especially the case as regards the flora 
of the Western Region. And strange to say, there is also a 
slight amount of affinity between the flora of Madagascar and 
that of America. Further, an examination of this flora as a 
whole confirms what is shown also by the geology and the 
fauna of the island, namely, its great antiquity and its long 
isolation. " About three-fourths of the species and a sixth 



372 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

of its genera of plants are endemic ; and it seems probable that 
Madagascar was joined to the African continent during some 
part or parts or the whole of the Miocene (including Oligocene) 
and early Pliocene periods," but was cut off from the mainland 
at least not subsequent to the later Pliocene period. 

A large number of plants, trees, and shrubs have been 
introduced into Madagascar, including fruits, cereals, and vege- 
tables ; but although many of them have established themselves 
in the island and become naturalised, they can scarcely be 
incorporated in the native flora. 

Section III.: Extinct Forms of Animal Life in 
Madagascar. 

Geology and Palaeontology are very modern sciences in 
Madagascar, for except slight and fragmentary notices of fossils 
in 1 82 1, 1854, ^^d 1855, and the first discovery of the eggs of 
^pyornis in 185 1, hardly anything was known of the geology 
of the island or of its ancient forms of life until within the last 
thirty years. The travels and researches of M. Alfred Grandidier, 
however, from 1865 to 1870, gave the first accurate information 
as to the physical geography of the country, together with 
particulars as to the geology of various parts of it, and greatly 
added also to our knowledge of the fauna. And during the past 
twenty years a large number of facts have been obtained by 
various travellers, and collections of rock specimens and fossils 
have been made. 

Although a very great deal yet remains to be done before it 
can be said that we have a fairly complete elementary acquaint- 
ance with Madagascar geology, especially in the central-western, 
south-western, and southern portions of the island, certain 
general conclusions appear pretty fairly established, and may . 
be very briefly described. The central portion of the island 
(more, however, to the east of the true centre) consists of land 
elevated from 3,000 feet to between 8,000 and 9,000 feet above 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 3/3 

the sea, and extending for about 650 miles north and south, and 
about 180 miles at its greatest breadth from east to west. This 
portion of the island is very mountainous, in fact, there is here 
hardly any level land except in the valleys of the rivers, and in 
the dried-up beds of ancient lakes. The rocks of this interior 
region, as well as of the narrow belt of coast plains and hilly 
country between it and the sea to the east, consist of gneiss 
and other crystalline rocks, gneiss very largely predominating. 
Besides these ancient rocks there are also more modern ones, 
of various ages and of volcanic origin. The highest points in 
the island are the summits of the mass of Ankaratra, which is 
"the wreck of a huge but ancient subaerial volcano." Beside 
these and other ancient signs of subterranean action, there are 
many scores of volcanic cones, probably of much more recent 
origin, some of them possibly in activity during the earliest 
human occupation of the country. These extinct craters are 
distributed in two principal groups, one in Mandridrano, about 
forty-five miles E.N.E. of the summit of Ankaratra, and the other 
in the district of Betafo, at about the same distance to the south- 
west 

In the western half of the island sedimentary rocks appear to 
form the greater portion of the comparatively level country of 
which it is composed. These consist of sandstones, beds of clay 
and shale, and limestones, together with occasional deposits of 
lignite. The following is a list given by Mr. Baron of " the 
metamorphic and sedimentary strata of Madagascar, so far as 
they are at present known, referred to the European standard 
of geological chronology." But it must be remembered that 
this list refers chiefly to the north-west of the island, the central- 
western and south-western portions not having been yet 
examined by any competent geologist.^ 

^ I am indebted for the main facts in the preceding paragraph to a paper by 
my friend and brother missionary, Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., who is our chief 
authority on the geology and petrology of Madagascar. This paper, " Notes 
on the Geology of Madagascar," in Quar. Joimi. Geol. Soc, May, 1889, together 
with a later one in the same journal (Feb., 1895), " Geological Notes of a Journey 



374 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Post-Tertiary Recent. 
Tertiary ... Eocene. 



Secondary 



^Cretaceous I Upper. _ 

Neocomian 
Oxfordian. 



Jurassic 



Lower Oolite (Cornbrash, Brad- 
ford Clay, Fuller's Earth). 
^^ Lias. 



r Silurian ? 
PALiEOZOic .,A Cambrian ? 
V Archaean. 

I now proceed to give a sketch of the most interesting forms 
of extinct animal life which have been discovered in Madagascar, 
most of them by very recent research. 

Mammalia. — It has been for a long time known that the 
living fauna of the island is remarkably deficient in the most 
characteristic mammals of Africa, or indeed in any large 
quadrupeds, and that the lemurs and their allies are very 
numerous in species, and are the most prominent and typical 
forms of the Malagasy fauna. And as shown by the table at 
p. 356 of this chapter, bats, small species of carnivora, of 
insectivora, and of rodents, with one ungulate animal (a wild 
hog), compose the hundred and odd species of the living 
mammals of the country. 

About three years ago Mr. J. T. Last, who has been collecting 
for some time for the Hon. Walter Rothschild, discovered a 
mammalian skull of strange aspect in a marsh at Ambolisatra, 
on the south-west coast of Madagascar. After an elaborate 
examination by Dr. C. J. Forsyth Major, this has been deter- 
mined to belong to a large extinct Lemuroid animal. The skull 
is much longer in shape, as well as larger, than that of any of the 
living Lemuridse, and the animal was probably nearly three times 
the size of any existing Lemur, approaching to the dimensions 
of the Anthropoid Apes. Dr. Major has accordingly formed a 
new family for this aberrant form of Lemuroid, which he has 

in Madagascar," gives the fullest information yet obtainable as to Madagascar 
geology. They are illustrated by three geological maps. 



TPIE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 3/5 

named Megaladapis inadagascariensis (fam. Megaladapidae)j 
From its association with other vertebrate remains still to be 
noticed, Dr. Major believes that this Lemuroid skull belongs to 
a group of animals, part, if not all, of which have been seen by 
man at a relatively recent date. 

Dr. Major has recently discovered other remains in Mada- 
gascar of an animal which appears to form a link between the 
apes and the lemurs, although partaking more of the character 
of the former than of the latter. No account, however, has 
yet been published of this discovery. 

In the year 1868 the bones of a small species of hippo- 
potamus were discovered by M. Grandidier on the south-west 
coast, and were described under the name of H. Lemerlei. 
Several years later the remains of other hippopotami were 
discovered at Antsirabe, in the central portion of the island, 
by the Rev. T. A. Rosaas, and were described by M. G. A. 
Guldberg under the name of H. inadagascariensis. And still 
more recently, remains of apparently a third species of this 
animal have been brought to light on the south-west coast, 
and this has been named H. leptorhyncus. These Madagascar 
hippopotami appear to have been about two-thirds the size 
of the African species, and are believed to have been contem- 
poraneous with the earliest human inhabitants of the island. 

In the same locality where the skull of the gigantic Lemuroid 
was found, Mr. Last has also discovered some bones of a species 
of swine {Sus\ as well as of a river-hog {Potamochoerus), which 
may prove to be the same as the one now existing in Mada- 
gascar, and also numerous bones of a slender-legged form of 
zebu {Bos'). 

From these facts it appears that the paucity of large in- 
digenous mammals which now characterises the fauna of 
Madagascar, was not always a marked feature of it ; and 
doubtless fuller and more systematic research will bring to 
light remains of many other species. 

^ See Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 185, 1894, B. pp. 15-38, pi. 5-7. 



376 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Birds. — Forty-five years ago the scientific world was startled 
by the discovery in Madagascar of the eggs and bones of a 
gigantic bird, to which the name of y^pyornis maximus was 
given. The bones showed that this extinct creature was a 
struthious bird, apparently allied to the ostrich and the recently 
exterminated Dinornis of New Zealand, but with more massive 
feet and leg-bones. The eggs were, however, perhaps the most 
interesting relics of this ancient bird, for they largely exceed the 
size of any previously known ^%'g, being 12J inches long by 
9f inches broad, with a capacity of more than six of the largest 
known ostrich eggs. 

During M. Grandidier's explorations in Madagascar, already 
referred to, he discovered other bones of ^pyornis, which were 
eventually described as belonging to two other species besides 
^. maximus^ viz., ^. medius and ^. modestus. All these 
remains were, up to a recent date, known only from the coast 
regions, viz., south-east, south, and south-west. But in the 
excavations made by the Rev. T. A. Rosaas at Antsirabe, which 
revealed the remains of Hippopotamus just referred to, bones of 
^pyornis were also discovered, and among these were some of 
a fourth species, which was named -^. Hildebrandti. More 
recently still, further excavations at Antsirabe and in the 
south-west and west have brought a large quantity of other 
material to light, and from these MM. Milne-Edwards and 
Grandidier have been able to make a more complete study 
of the extinct birds of Madagascar, and to determine that 
they belong to many different species.^ They say : — 

" These various kinds of yEpyornis constitute a family, repre- 
sented by very differing forms. At the present time at least 
a dozen can be distinguished, some of large size, others of 
moderate dimensions. The former had a height of about ten 
feet, while others hardly exceeded that of a bustard. Their 
anatomical characters justify their being arranged in two genera: 

^ " Observations sur les ^pyornis de Madagascar " ; Comptes rendus, t. cxviii. 
Januai7 15, 1894. 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 377 

(i) that oi yEpyornis, with large and massive legs ; and (2) that 
of Mullerornis, with slenderer legs and feet, and which much 
resembled in their proportions the cassowary of New Guinea 
and the apteryx of New Zealand." The largest of the species 
of ^pyornis has been named ^. ingens^ and greatly exceeds 
in size ^. maximus. 

"The conditions under which the remains of these birds 
have been deposited seem to show that they frequented the 
margins of sheets of water, and that, if they did not swim there, 
they kept in the midst of the rushes bordering the lakes and 
the rivers. In fact, wherever they have been obtained, their 
bones are associated with those of small hippopotami, croco- 
diles, and tortoises, that is to say, with animals altogether 
aquatic :in their habits. The ^pyornis must usually have 
lived in low-lying and frequently inundated plains ; and there 
also they nested, as we may infer from the number of por- 
tions of the skeletons of very young birds which have been 
found there in abundance." 

Besides the remains of the struthious birds just described, 
among the bones from Antsirabe some portions which belonged 
to a large rail, nearly related to Aphanapteryx^ have been 
recognised ; as well as others of a species of wild-goose, but 
much larger than those of any kinds now inhabiting Mada- 
gascar. These remains again show the existence of extinct 
birds of aquatic habits, belonging to the same period as the 
^pyornis^ and living under similar conditions. 

These large birds were certainly contemporaneous with 
Man, for there are to be seen, on some of their bones, some 
deep and very sharply distinct notches, which were made by 
cutting instruments, probably in removing the flesh. On the 
femur of a hippopotamus, of the same date, is also to be seen 
a hollow cut, going through the whole thickness of the bone and 
evidently produced by human hands. 

These discoveries doubtless give promise of others still 
more important yet to be made, which will throw some light 



378 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

upon the early history of Madagascar, from the point of view 
of physical geography and zoology. It is impossible not to 
be struck with the analogies which the fauna of this island 
presents^with that of New Zealand, where, at a recent period, 
there lived a large number of gigantic birds, the Dinornithidae, 
represented by more than twenty species. These resemblances 
seem to indicate some former connection between these islands 
(as well as between the islands of the southern hemisphere 
generally), now separated by an immense extent of ocean ; and 
this conclusion appears to agree with observations made with 
regard to the ancient fauna of the Madagascar group of islands.^ 

Reptiles. — It is well known to students of natural history 
that on small islands separated from each other by nearly half 
the circumference of the globe there still exist gigantic tortoises. 
These islands are the Galapagos, west of Ecuador in South 
America, and the island of Aldabra, north of Madagascar. On 
the mainland of the great African Island none of these great 
chelonians are now found living, but recent research has shown, 
as we might have supposed, that they formed part of the ancient 
fauna of the country. It is only owing to the fact of Aldabra 
being uninhabited by man that these huge defenceless creatures 
have maintained their existence in one of the outlying islands. 
The Aldabra tortoises have a carapace 5 ft. 6 in. long and 
5 ft. 9 in. broad, and weigh about 800 lbs. The extinct tortoises 
of Madagascar appear to have been as large as the ones now 
living in Aldabra islet, and have been described as of two 
species, Testudo abrupta and T. Grandidieri? As already 
mentioned, their skeletons, carapaces, and plastrons have been 
found associated with remains of ^pyornis and hippopotamus. 

The rivers and lakes of Madagascar abound with crocodiles, 
and it is not therefore surprising that remains of this reptile 
have been found in the Quaternary deposits which have yielded 

^ The preceding paragraphs are translated from the paper of MM. Milne- 
Edwards and Grandidier already cited. 

» See Coinptes-rcndus, vol. Ixvii., 1868 ; vol. c, 1885. 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 379 

SO many relics of gigantic birds, pachyderms, and chelonians. 
M. Grandidier says : " The bones of crocodiles which I found 
belong to a different species from that which now inhabits the 
waters of Madagascar {Crocodilus madagascariensis) ; for while 
this latter is remarkable for the slenderness and length of its 
snout, and is allied to the common crocodile, the fossil species, 
to which we have given the name of Crocodilus robicstus, has 
hardly any nearer neighbour than the convex-headed crocodile 
of India, or the black crocodile of Senegal. It is curious that 
this species, which I have found fossil on the west coast of 
Madagascar, now lives only in the great lake of Alaotra in 
i\ntsihanaka, its last refuge, where also it will not long remain, 
as this lake is filling up by degrees, and its extent diminishing 
every year. It was evidently a lacustrine crocodile, which was 
common in Madagascar when this island, extending far towards 
the east, and not having been yet overturned by the granitic 
eruption, was covered by enormous lakes ; and here the hippo- 
potami, whose remains I have discovered in such abundance, 
were found in large numbers." ^ 

It will have been noticed that all the extinct animals which 
have been hitherto described belong to a very recent geological 
period, all of them probably having been living during the 
earliest human occupation of the island. But recent research 
has shown that in a very greatly more remote era, the Secondary 
or Mesozoic, pre-eminently the " Age of Reptiles," Madagascar, 
in common with other parts of the world, also had its huge 
saurians crawling over its surface, or swimming in its waters. 

About three years ago Mr. Last obtained from some Jurassic 
deposits in the north-west of Madagascar, near the Bay of 
Narmda, vertebrae and portions of the limb-bones of an enormous 
terrestrial Lizard, as large, probably, says Dr. H. Woodward, as 
the Atlantosaurus of Marsh; 2 two genera, if not three, are 

^ See Comptes-rcndtis, vol. Ixxv., 1872. 

2 Atlantosatirus was probably the most gigantic of all these huge lizards, 
being about eighty feet long, and having a height of thirty feet ! 



380 MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

represented, one being like Ornithopsis or Brontosaurus^ In 
a paper by Mr. R. Lydekker, F.R.S., contributed to the Quart. 
Journ. Zool. Soc. (August, 1895), some of these bones have been 
described as belonging to "a Sauropodous Dinosaur," of the 
genus Bothriospondylus^ and called by him B, madagascariensis. 
These remains belong to the Jurassic series of rocks. 

In 1 89 1 some fragments of the skull of a reptile were dis- 
covered by the Rev. R. Baron in a tenacious shelly limestone 
in the north-western part of the island. These have been deter- 
mined by Mr. R. Bullen Newton, F.G.S., to belong to a reptile 
possesing crocodilian affinities, and from its narrow and elongate 
rostrum, " bearing a strong resemblance to the existing Gavial 
of the Ganges, though differing very widely from it in other and 
more important characters. It is not until we go much further 
in time that we find its congener among the Mesozoic crocodiles 
forming the family of the Teleosauridae." Mr. Newton regards 
these remains as portions of a new form, and from them he 
founds a new species of the genus SteneosauruSy which he names 
^. Baroni. This genus has hitherto been known only in British 
and European areas, so that the discovery of this new species in 
a locality so far south as Madagascar is a matter of very high 
interest when considering its geographical distribution. From 
the few molluscan shells associated with the fossil, it appears to 
belong to the Lower Oolite age. 

The above-mentioned mammals, birds, and reptiles (twenty- 
six or twenty-seven only in number) comprise all that is at 
present known of the ancient vertebrate forms of life in Mada- 
gascar. There are doubtless many others yet to be disentombed, 
and fresh discoveries are sure to be made on fuller investigation 
of the country. It may be confidently expected that the next 
few years will show a great increase in our knowledge of the 
palaeontology of this great island, as well as of its geology, for 
the field is very wide, and both subjects have only been slightly 
touched as yet. 

^ Brontosaiiriis was about sixty feet in length. 



THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 38 1 

A complete list of all the fossils from Madagascar known up 
to the present date is given by Mr. R. Bullen Newton in a paper 
in Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (February, 1895).^ These, omitting the 
vertebrates already described, number 140, and belong to the 
Mollusca in Quaternary strata, to the Mollusca and Foraminifera 
in Tertiary (Eocene), to Mollusca, Echinodermata, Actinozoa, 
Foraminifera, and Plantae in the Secondary (Cretaceous and 
Jurassic). 

Let us try to sum up in a few sentences the results of recent 
research on the ancient animal life of the island. 

It seems probable that Madagascar, when the first represen- 
tatives of mankind occupied it, was a country much more fully 
covered by lakes and marshes than it is at present. In these 
waters, amid vast cane brakes and swamps of papyrus and 
sedge, wallowed and snorted herds of hippopotami ; huge 
tortoises crawled over the low lands on their margins ; tall 
ostrich-like birds, some over ten feet high, and others no larger 
than bustards, stalked over the marshy valleys ; great rails 
hooted and croaked among the reeds, and clouds of large 
geese and other water-fowl flew screaming over its lakes ; on 
the sandbanks crocodiles lay by scores basking in the sun ; 
great ape-like lemurs climbed the trees and caught the birds ; 
troops of river-hogs swam the streams and dug up roots among 
the woods ; and herds of slender-legged zebu-oxen grazed on 
the open downs. These were the animals which the first wild 
men hunted with their palm-bark spears, and shot with their 
arrows tipped with burnt clay or stone.^ 

And as we look further back through long past geological 
ages, when the clays and sandstones of the oolite and the white 
masses of the chalk were being deposited in the coral -studded 
tropic seas and archipelagoes of Europe and other parts of the 

^ And reproduced in Antanananvo Annual^ xix., 1895. 

^ The Vazimba, the supposed earliest inhabitants of the interior, are said not 
to have known the use of iron, but to have had spears made of the hard, wiry- 
bark of the Anivona palm, and to have employed arrow-heads made of burnt 
clay. No flint weapons have yet been discovered in Madagascar. 



382 



MADAGASCAR BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 



world, and when Madagascar was probably no island, but a 
peninsula of Eastern Africa, the mist opens for a moment, and 
we see vast reptile forms dimly through the haze : great slender- 
snouted Gavials in the streams and lakes, and huge Dinosaurs, 
sixty to eighty feet long, crawling over the wooded plains, and 
tearing down whole trees with their powerful arms. 

Such are some glimpses of the Madagascar of the past 
which the study of its rocks and fossils already opens to the 
mental eye. We may confidently look for further light upon 
the dim and distant bygone ages as we learn more of the 
geology of the country. The thick curtain which at present 
shrouds the old-world time will be yet more fully lifted, and we 
shall probably, ere many more years have passed, be able to 
draw many more mental pictures of the extinct animal life of 
the great African island. 




Zbc Gresbam ipress 

UNWIN BEOTHEKS, 
WOKING AND LONDON. 



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